Test 1 Flashcards
What are two potential complications of immobility?
Pressure ulcers and muscular disuse atrophy.
What is a syndrome?
A collection of symptoms.
What is the pressure exerted by all the solutes in a compartment known as?
Osmotic pressure.
What are five signs and symptoms seen in carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning?
HA, giddiness, confusion, seizures, and coma.
What are three states that can cause hypopolarization?
Hyperkalemia, hypernatremia, and hypocalcemia.
A DNA molecule, made up by genes, forms into a specialized shape called a what?
A chromosome.
What is the name of one medication taken by mothers during early pregnancy that was known to cause abnormal legs and arms?
Thalidomide.
What are three causes of hypoproteinemia?
Liver diseases (like cirrhosis), malnutrition, and kidney diseases (like glomerulonephritis).
What is a decrease, or shrinkage, in cellular size?
Atrophy.
What is an adenocarcinoma?
A malignant cancer of glandular tissue.
What does the prefix “dorsal-“ mean?
Pertaining to the back.
In which locations of the body is gout most often seen?
The first metatarsal joint of the big toe or in the ankle joint.
What type of adaptation is the reversible replacement of one mature cell by another type of less differentiated (less specialized) mature cell?
Metaplasia.
What is the most common cause for an increase in blood osmolality?
Loss of water.
What is the movement of water from one compartment to another via a semi-permeable membrane?
Osmosis.
Why do people with sickle cell anemia experience SOB?
Because the deformed Hgb cannot carry the usual amount of O2 and because of less RBCs due to anemia.
If a patient has a heterozygous genotype for an autosomal recessive disorder, what does this mean?
It means that person is a carrier, but will not be affected by the disease at all.
What are six common signs and symptoms seen in people suffering from any type of cancer?
Pain, fatigue (due to angiogenesis), cachexia, anemia, leukopenia, and thrombocytopenia.
What is an abnormal mass of tissue called?
A tumor or neoplasm.
If a cancer has the suffix “blastoma”, what does this say about its origin?
That it began very early in development of any cell.
What is a leiomyoma?
A benign tumor of the smooth muscle.
What causes the signs and symptoms to occur in someone who has hemophilia?
A defect that blocks the normal creation of clotting factors.
What type of genetic disorder is Marfan Syndrome?
A single-gene, autosomal dominant disorder on chromosome 15.
What are the two components of the extracellular compartment?
The interstitial fluid and the plasma fluid compartment.
What is the key electrolyte that drives water movement?
Sodium (Na+).
Is a malignant tumor more likely to be well or poorly differentiated?
Poorly differentiated.
What causes hypertrophy?
Hormonal stimulation or an increased functional demand.
True or false, tonicity and salinity are interchangeable?
True.
What type of adaptation would BPH be considered?
Pathological hyperplasia.
What type of disease has abnormalities in glycogenesis or glycogenolysis?
Glycogen storage disease.
What is one considerable byproduct of gluconeogenesis and why is it important?
Ketones, and they provide some energy, but they are acidic and cannot be used by brain cells.
The return to homeostasis after being challenged by a stressor is called what?
Compensation.
What does the prefix “ad-“ mean?
Increase, adherence, to, or toward.
What is the main intracellular anion that balances with Ca+ like a seesaw?
Phosphate (PO4-).
What are the five forms of cellular adaptation?
Atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, and dysplasia.
What is compensation?
The return to homeostasis after being challenged by a stressor.
What type of genetic disease is sickle cell anemia?
A single-gene, autosomal recessive disorder.
What are abnormalities that are either detectable at birth and/or can be attributed to fetal development “glitches” called?
Congenital defects.
What is clonal proliferation?
A rapid increase in growth and development in cells due to oncogenes.
What two hormones are released in response to hypervolemia and where are they released from?
The right atrium and left ventricle releases ANP and BNP to tell the kidneys to increase urination.
What are multifactorial genetic disorders?
Ones that result from a combination of environmental triggers and variations/mutations of genes, plus sometimes inherited tendencies.
What are six signs and symptoms expected to be seen in someone suffering from polycystic kidney disease?
Hematuria, proteinuria, frequent kidney infections, nephrolithiasis, and pain at costovertebral angles and abdomen.
What is a normal range for pCO2 in the human body?
35-45.
What is one risk factor of Down syndrome attributed to mothers?
Being over the age of 35 years.
How does cyanide injure the human body?
By inhibiting cytochrome oxidase.
What is a “new” DNA that results from purposefully combining two or more different sources of DNA?
Recombinant DNA.
What is another name for single-gene disorders?
Mendelian disorders.
What does N indicate in the staging of cancers?
The extent of lymph node involvement.
What is a collection of symptoms known as?
A syndrome.
What is the main cation in intracellular fluids?
Potassium (K+).
What is dysplasia?
Adaptation that involves abnormal changes in size, shape, and organization of mature cells due to persistent, severe cell injury or irritation.
What type of adaptation involves abnormal changes in size, shape, and organization of mature cells due to persistent, severe cell injury or irritation?
Dysplasia.
What are two common signs and symptoms associated with Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome?
Memory loss and ataxia.
What are five signs and symptoms associated with Down syndrome?
Mental retardation, low-set ears, epicanthic fold to the eyes, macroglossia, and short limbs.
What are substances in the body produced by cancer cells or released by cancer-damaged tissue that can be found in blood, spinal fluid, or urine?
Tumor markers.
What does T indicate in the staging of cancers?
The size of the tumor.
What gene is affected in sickle cell anemia?
The Hgb-coding gene on chromosome 11.
What normal cellular function is known to create free radicals?
The electron transport chain.
What is the name of a condition or event that triggers a pathological event or disorder?
A precipitating factor.
What is an enzyme found in most muscle cells (including the heart) that catalyzes transference of phosphate groups back and forth between ADP and ATP?
Creatine kinase.
What are two copies of a gene at the same locus called?
Alleles.
Which two solutes most commonly affect fluid shifts by their loss?
Sodium (Na+), and proteins.
What is a sequela?
Any abnormal condition that follows and is the result of disease, injury, or treatment.
What is a type of genetic disorder that results from alterations to the numbers or structure of a chromosome, which in turn alters the “local” genes?
Chromosomal disorders.
What is oxygen deprivation to cells (hypoxia) due to decrease in arterial circulation to the area known as?
Ischemia.
Which four hormones are normally released in response to hypoglycemia?
Epinephrine, cortisol, GH, and glucagon.
What is any abnormal condition that follows and is the result of disease, injury, or treatment?
Sequela.
If a patient is experiencing large amounts of emesis, which acid/base sequela would you expect to see?
Metabolic alkalosis.
What are single-gene disorders usually due to?
An inherited mutated gene.
What are two vitamins that have significant antioxidant properties?
Vitamins C and E.
How many pairs of chromosomes does the normal body have?
23 pairs.
What is a harmful condition of the body (and/or mind) called?
A disease.
What are the combinations of alleles representing recessive and dominant genes known as?
The genotype.
What does the prefix “ab-“ mean?
From, away from, or off.
What is the cause of a disease including all factors that contribute to the development of that disease called?
Its etiology.
What are alleles?
Two copies of a gene at the same locus.
What is the normal tonicity of the blood?
0.9%.
What kind of relationship do calcium ions share with sodium ions?
An inverse one.
What is a disturbance in the healthiness of the body called?
A disorder.
Why does hypocalcemia result in hypopolarization?
Because it causes cell membranes to be more permeable to sodium ions.
What is an alteration in mobility as a result of an acute (recent surgery, bone fracture, pneumonia, or new disease state) or chronic illness (sequela from a stroke/BA or long-standing disease) called?
Immobility.
What are several, five, pathological ways patients can lose water, causing hyperosmolar blood?
Inadequate intake, emesis, diarrhea, diabetes, and Addison’s.
What is low BP combines with the signs and symptoms of not getting enough blood to different parts of the body?
Shock.
What are the two main sequelae of hypoxia in cellular-level function?
ATP deficiency which interrupts normal electrical cell-membrane status, and acidosis from anaerobic glycolysis and gluconeogenesis.
Why do people with sickle cell anemia experience ischemic pain, especially in the joints?
Because the deformed RBCs “clog up” the capillaries in the body’s vasculature.
If a fluid has a high osmolality, will the osmotic pressure be high or low?
The osmotic pressure will be high if the osmolality is high.
What is a syndrome that includes anorexia, early satiety, weight loss, asthenia, altered cellular metabolism due to cancer?
Cachexia.
What is abnormal cell death called?
Necrosis.
What are some CNS symptoms one might expect to see in someone with B-to-T fluid shifts?
Restlessness, confusion, unconsciousness, and seizures.
What is the most abundant cation in extracellular fluids?
Sodium (Na+).
What are three states that can cause hyperpolarization?
Hypokalemia, hyponatremia, and hypercalcemia.
What are five nursing interventions to be carried out in treatment of immobility?
Frequent repositioning, encouragement of early activity/ambulation, skin check, adequate nutrition, and education about risks of immobility.
What would be a simple compensatory mechanism for hypovolemia?
The heart rate would increase to get blood around faster temporarily.
What type of adaptation involves abnormal changes in size, shape, and organization of mature cells due to persistent, severe cell injury or irritation?
Dysplasia.
What are genetic abnormalities that are found in some people that predict odds of having certain types of cancers known as?
Genetic markers.
What are the two most common mechanisms that cause blood osmolality to fall?
Excess water, and loss of solutes.
What is the study of the underlying changes in body physiology that result from disease or injury called?
Pathophysiology.
What medical prefix has the meaning from, away from, or off?
Ab-.
What medical prefix has the meaning increase, adherence, to, or toward?
Ad-.
What are signs and symptoms that might occur in someone with a glycogen storage disease?
Myasthenia and cramps during exercise due to a lack of energy reserves.
What does the body use to achieve compensation?
Control mechanisms, also known as compensatory mechanisms.
What is the position off a gene on a chromosome called?
Its locus.
Is the condition of lymphoma considered benign or malignant?
Malignant despite its “-oma” prefix.
What are some causes of metabolic acidosis?
Excess accumulation of H+, not enough urinary H+ excretion, not enough HCO3 produced, or too much urinary HCO3 excretion.
What are clinical manifestations?
The demonstration of the presence of a sign and/or symptom of a disease.
What does the renal system do in response to respiratory acidosis?
The kidneys will increase their production of HCO3 as a buffer.
What is one compensatory mechanism to correct fluid overload?
The natriuretic peptide system.
What type of genetic disease is polycystic kidney disease?
A single-gene, autosomal dominant disorder.
What is the maintenance of constant conditions in the body’s internal environment known as?
Homeostasis.
What is a precipitating factor?
A condition or event that triggers a pathological event or disorder.
What are interferons?
They are small glycoproteins (cytokines) produced in response to viral infection and inhibit viral replication.
Is atrophy of the thymus in early in development considered pathologic or physiologic?
Physiologic.
If someone were talking about the Philadelphia chromosome, what kind of disorder would this be?
A structural disorder due to translocation.
What kind of disease is McArdle’s disease?
An autosomal recessive, glycogen-storage disease.
What is a disorder?
A disturbance in the healthiness of the body.
What two neurological issues are associated with beriberi?
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome and paresthesia.
What is the predicted outcome of a disease based on certain factors?
A prognosis.
If a cancer has the suffix “sarcoma”, what does this say about its origin?
That it began in connective tissues.
What is hyperplasia?
A type of adaptation involves increases in the number of cells resulting from increased rate of cell division.
What is a term used to refer to cells that are poorly differentiated or have a loss of differentiation?
Anaplasia.
What are signs and symptoms associated with a local issue?
Redness, swelling, heat, rash, and lymphadenopathy.
What is the difference between an iatrogenic and a nosocomial problem?
Iatrogenic results from medical treatment, while nosocomial results from being in a hospital environment.
What are some pulmonary symptoms one might expect to see in someone with B-to-T fluid shifts?
Rales, SOB, cough, and pulmonary edema.
What word refers specifically to the protein molecules and is the exact same principle as osmotic pressure?
Oncotic pressure.
What is a segment of a DNA molecule that is composed of an ordered sequence of nucleotide bases?
A gene.
No matter the way a cell is injured, what is almost always the result of that injury?
Some level of disruption to the cell’s metabolic pathway.
If a person is experiencing anxiety and hyperventilating, which acid/base sequela would you expect to see?
Respiratory alkalosis.
If a cancer has the suffix “carcinoma”, what does this say about its origin?
That it began in the epithelium or in glandular tissue.
What are three causes of hypervolemia?
Excessive fluid intake, low output (renal failure), and SIADH.
What are the challenges to the body’s balance sometimes called?
Stressors.
What are signs and symptoms associated with a systemic issue?
Fever, urticaria, malaise, and systemic lymphadenopathy.
Why do most X-linked disorders occur in males than in females?
Because women have two X chromosomes while men only have one.
What type of genetic disease is hemophilia?
A single-gene, sex-linked recessive disorder.
Which cancer is associated with the Philadelphia chromosome?
Chronic myeloid leukemia.
What are three signs and symptoms associated with hyperketonemia?
Ketoacidosis, ketonuria, and acetone breath.
What metaplasia happens to the epithelia of a smoker’s lungs?
The normal columnar ciliated epithelia is replaced with stratified squamous epithelia.
What are the main function of genes?
Coding for synthesis of proteins that form our traits and functional characteristics.
What is the study of functions and processes that occur in body, mostly the NORMAL processes?
Physiology.
What are four signs and symptoms expected to be seen in someone suffering from sickle cell anemia?
SOB, asthenia, fatigue, and ischemic pain (especially in the joints).
What is the sequence of cellular and tissues events that take place from the time of initial contact with an etiologic agent until the ultimate expression of a disease called?
Pathogenesis.
What is either a temporary or permanent process of accommodating to a new situation the body is undergoing, or creating a new state to accommodate changes in environment or situation?
Adaptation.
What is another name for the four hormones that are released in response to hypoglycemia?
Stress or counterregulatory hormones.
What two nutritional deficiencies are normally seen in alcoholics?
Iron deficiency (causing anemia) and B-vitamin deficiency.
What is an alteration to the numbers of chromosomes known as?
Aneuploidy.
What is the name of the “normal death” of cells?
Apoptosis.
What is cell death (necrosis) that is specifically caused by lack of arterial blood supply to an area called?
An infarction.
What does RAAS stand for?
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.
What is the multiplication or reproduction of cells, resulting in the rapid expansion of a cell population?
Cell proliferation.
If the body is unable to appropriately meet the challenge of stressors, what is the name for the body’s failure to compensate, adapt, heal, etc.?
Decompensation.
What is the normal pH of blood?
7.35-7.45.
What is one way the body naturally handles free radicals?
With the enzyme superoxide dismutase.
What are six signs and symptoms associated with cyanide (and other poisons) toxicity?
HA, emesis, agitation, confusion, and eventually respiratory problems and death.
What is another name for hypovitaminosis B1?
Beriberi.
What is another name for Down syndrome?
Trisomy 21.
What are seven known generators of free radicals in humans?
Senescence, environmental pollutants, drugs and alcohol abuse, radiation damage, foods high in preservatives, and charred meat.
What gene is affected in polycystic kidney disease?
One on chromosome 16 (85% of the cases) that results in abnormal creation of kidney tissue, (15% due to chromosome 4).
What is a disease with an unidentifiable cause?
Idiopathic.
What is a disease?
A harmful condition of the body (and/or mind).
What are four of the most common etiologies that cause alterations in cellular-level function?
Hypoxia, malnutrition, electrolyte imbalances, and fluid distribution changes.
If a patient has a disorder that takes gluconeogenesis to an extreme, what might they have?
Type I diabetes mellitus.
What are the two functions that result from angiotensin II’s presence?
Stimulating peripheral vasoconstriction, and increasing aldosterone secretion.
What represents the ability of a gene to express its function?
Penetrance.
When does an autosomal recessive disorder occur?
When a mutated (“diseased”), recessive gene partners up with an allele that is also recessive & diseased (homozygous recessive).
What is the gene-gene interaction in which a gene in one locus masks the phenotypic effects of a gene at a different locus known as?
Epistasis.
Why does diarrhea occur in some intestinal infections?
Because a microbe disrupts the integrity of the walls of the capillaries, causing water to leak from the capillaries into the intestinal lumen.
What is the name of the syndrome that occurs because toxicity of alcohol causes gene mutations during gestational development?
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS).
What is any influence that causes congenital defects known as?
A teratogen.
If needing to tell a patient to avoid foods with purines, what three foods/drinks would you tell them to avoid?
Red meats, cream sauces, and red wine.
What type of adaptation involves increases in the number of cells resulting from increased rate of cell division?
Hyperplasia.
What four neurologic signs and symptoms would you expect to see in someone who is dehydrated?
Restlessness, confusion, unconsciousness, and seizures.
What are seven signs and symptoms of fluid volume deficiency in infants?
Sunken eyes, oliguria, sunken fontanels, change in urine concentration, poor skin turgor, and sometimes hypotension and CNS abnormalities.
Which three conditions are known to make the kidneys secrete renin?
High blood osmolality, hypovolemia due to hemorrhage, or hypotension.
What is one condition that normally suppresses the activity of the RAAS?
Hypervolemia.
What type of adaptation involves increases in size of cells and consequently size of organ?
Hypertrophy.
What does M indicate in the staging of cancers?
Metastasis.
What does the prefix “ventral-“ mean?
Pertaining to the front side.
What is a type of protein molecule only found in heart muscle?
Troponin.
