Test #1 Flashcards
A branching diagram showing the inferred evolutionary relationship among various species based on similarities/differences in their characteristics
phylogenetic tree
What 3 things do we often use to construct a phylogenetic tree?
- morphological data
- biochemical data
- molecular data
each species in a phylogenetic tree
taxon
closest taxa (sharing recent common ancestor)
sister taxa
the point on a phylogenetic tree where lineages diverge
branch point
equally close taxa (unresolved pattern of divergence); more than 2 descendant groups branched at one point
polytomy
1st lineage (branch) in a phylogenetic tree (branch early in history)
basal taxon
the system of naming and classifying organisms
taxonomy
What is the hierarchal classification system of the living organisms?
binomial nomenclature
What are the two parts included in binomial nomenclature?
Genus species
What is the order of binomial nomenclature?
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
clade that consists of an ancestral species and all of its descendants
monophyletic group
clade that consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of its descendants
paraphyletic group
clade that consists of taxa with different ancestors
polyphyletic group
a species or group of species that is closely related to the species being studied
outgroup
various species being studied
ingroup
What are the 3 domains in the recent 3 domain 6 kingdom system?
- Domain Bacteria
- Domain Archaea
- Domain Eukarya
What are the 6 kingdoms in the recent 3 domain 6 kingdom system, and which domains do they belong to?
- Kingdom Eubacteria (Domain Bacteria)
- Kingdom Archaebacteria (Domain Archaea)
- Kingdom Protista (Domain Eukarya)
- Kingdom Fungi (Domain Eukarya)
- Kingdom Plantae (Domain Eukarya)
- Kingdom Animalia (Domain Eukarya)
Which domains do prokaryotes include?
- Domain Bacteria
2. Domain Archaea
What are the 3 typical shapes of prokaryotes?
- spherical
- rod
- spiral
What is the main difference between bacteria and archaea, in terms of their cellular structure?
Bacteria contains peptidoglycan, while archaea contains polysaccharides.
a network of sugar polymers cross-linked by polypeptides
peptidoglycan
result of gram stain test that results in a purple color, indicating a thick peptidoglycan layer (easier to kill with antibiotics b/c no outer layer)
gram-positive
result of gram stain test that results in a red or pink color, indicating a thin peptidoglycan layer
gram-negative
What is the main method of reproduction for prokaryotes?
binary fission
inactive, dormant, tough, non-reproductive structures that consist of DNA and cytoplasma
endospores
What is the function of an endospore?
to slow metabolic rate
What are the 5 major groups of Kingdom Eubacteria?
- Proteobacteria
- Chlamydias
- Spirochetes
- Cyanobacteria
- Gram-positive bacteria
Group of Kingdom Eubacteria that is gram-negative and has lipopolysaccharides (has 5 subgroups)
proteobacteria
Group of Kingdom Eubacteria that are endosymbionts and include the intracellular parasites of animals and are gram-negative
chlamydias
Group of Kingdom Eubacteria that are helical heterotrophs, free-living or pathogenic parasites, and are hard to kill
spirochetes
Group of Kingdom Eubacteria that are photoautotrophs, chloroplast endosymbiosis origin hypothesis (chlorophyll a), abundant in aquatic environments, heterocysts (Nitrogen fixation), stromatolites
cyanobacteria
Group of Kingdom Eubacteria that are actinomycetes, contains mycoplasm, and includes bacillus anthracis
Gram-positive bacteria
soil-dwelling streptomyces that decompose soil
actinomycetes
the cause of anthrax
bacillus anthracis
the smallest known cells that lack cell walls (not typical, neither positive or negative bacteria)
mycoplasm
What are the 5 groups of proteobacteria?
- alpha proteobacteria
- beta proteobacteria
- gamma proteobacteria
- delta proteobacteria
- epsilon proteobacteria
group of proteobacteria:
- – mitochondrial endosymbiosis origin hypothesis
- – Rhizobium (nitrogen fixation)
alpha proteobacteria
group of proteobacteria:
- – soil bacteria
- – nitrosomonas (nitrogen cycle)
beta proteobacteria
group of proteobacteria:
- – sufur bacteria
- – photoautotrophs
- – E. coli (intestine bacteria)
gamma proteobacteria
group of proteobacteria:
- – myxobacteria (fruiting-body forms)
- – myxospore (resistant to bad environment)
- – sulfate/sulfur reducing bacteria
delta proteobacteria
group of proteobacteria
— most are pathogens
epsilon proteobacteria
calcareous mounds of prokaryotic algae and cyanobacteria (living fossils)
stromatolites
What are the 3 major biological and ecological roles of prokaryotes?
- chemical recycling (decomposers)
- ecological interactions (symbionts)
— mutualism (+/+)
— commensalism (+/0)
— parasitism (pathogens cause disease) (+/-) - autotrophs
— hydrothermal vents (have chemoautotropic
bacteria)
— cyanobacteria (photoautotrophs)What
What are the 5 super groups of protists?
- Excavata
- Chromalveolata
- Rhizaria
- Archaeplastida
- Unikonta
What 3 phyla are under the group excavata?
- Diplomonads
- Parabasalids
- Euglenozoans
What 3 phyla are under the group Chromalveolata and the subgroup alveolates?
- Dinoflagellata (Dinoflagellates)
- Apicomplexa (Apicomplexans)
- Ciliophora (Ciliates)
What 4 phyla are under the group Chromalveolata and the subgroup Stramenopiles?
- Bacillariophyta (Diatoms)
- Chrysophyta (Golden Algae)
- Phaeophyta (Brown Algae)
- Oomycota (Oomycetes) (water molds)
What 3 phyla are under the group Rhizaria?
- Cercozoa (cercozoans)
- Foraminifera (forams)
- Radiolaria (radiolarians)
What 4 phyla are under the group Archaeplastida?
- Rhodophyta (Red Algae)
- Chlorophyta (Chlorophytes) (green algae)
- Charophyta (Charophytes) (green algae)
- Plantae (land plants)
What 4 phyla are under the group Unikonta and the subgroup Amoebozoans?
- Acrasiomycota (cellular slime molds)
- Myxomycota (plasmodial slime molds)
- Gymnamoeba (free-living amoebas)
- Entamoeba (parasitic amoebas)
What 4 phyla are under the group Unikonta and the subgroup Opisthokonts?
- Nucleariids
- Fungi
- Choanoflagellates
- Animals
combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition
mixotrophs
supergroup of protist:
- – synapomorphies
- – feeding groove
- – modified mitochondria
excavata
supergroup of protists:
— monophyletic
— endosymbiosis of red algae - secondary
endosymbiosis
Chromalveolata
supergroup of protists:
- – monophyletic
- – amoebas (pseudopodia)
- – elaborate shell
Rhizaria
supergroup of protists:
- – monophyletic
- – chloroplasts with a double membrane
archaeplastida
2 groups of excavata:
- – no plastids
- – modified mitochondria (lack ETC)
- – often parasitic
- – anaerobic environment
diplomonads and parabasalids
subgroup of excavata:
- – mitosomes (modified mitochondria)
- – 2 equal sized nuclei and multiple flagella
- – parasites
- – Giardia intestinalis
diplomonads
subgroup of excavata:
- – hydrogenosomes (reduced mitochondria)
- – Trichomonas vaginalis
parabasalids
subgroup of excavata:
- – usually 2 flagella
- – crystalline rod in flagella
- – disc-shaped mitochondrial cristae
euglenozoans
subgroup of euglenozoans:
- – kinetoplast
- – trypanosomes
kinetoplastids
organelle consisting of extracellular DNA
kinetoplast
parasites; sleeping sickness; tsetse fly
trypanosomes
subgroup of euglenozoans:
— flagella emerge from the pocket at one end,
eyespot
— mixotrophs
— paramylon
— nutrition (photosynthesis or phagocytosis)
euglenids
subgroup of chromalveolata:
— alveoli (small membrane-bound sacs)
alveolata (alveolates)
subgroup of alveolata:
- – unicellular
- – photosynthetic
- – 2 flagella
- – cell wall (cellulose)
- – asexual reproduction
- – red tide
- – zooxanthellae
Dinoflagellata (dinoflagellates)
symbionts of jellyfish, corals, and mollusks
- – mutualistic relationship
- – photosynthetic for coral
- – coral bleaching
- – no flagella needed
zooxanthellae
subgroup of alveolata:
--- unicellular
--- nonmotile
--- parasites of animals
--- apex (has dense organelles, penetrate host
cells)
--- plasmodium (malaria)
--- complex life cycle (2 hosts)
--- alternation of generationsapicomplexa
subgroup of alveolata:
— unicellular
— cilia (function- movement)
— oral groove
— vacuoles (function- store water/food)
— 2 types of nuclei (micronucleus, macronucleous)
— conjugation (sexual process, exchange haploid
micronuclei)
— paramecium
ciliophora (ciliates)
subgroup of chromalveolata:
— 2 flagella: one hairy, one smooth
stramenopila (stramenopiles)
asexual form in mosquitos
sporozoite
intermediate form in human liver
merozoite
sexual form in human blood and mosquitos
gametocyte
subgroup of stramenopila:
- – unicellular
- – cell wall (glassy, frustule, silica)
- – chl a, c, carotenoid (no chl b)
- – no flagella
- – abundant phytoplankton
- – mostly asexual
- – diatomaceous sediments
bacillariophyta (diatoms)
the frustules of dead diatoms settle to the sea floor and accumulate there
diatomaceous sediments
subgroup of stramenopila:
- – unicellular, colonial
- – freshwater
- – chl a, c, carotenoid, xanthophyll
- – 2 flagella
chrysophyta (golden algae)
subgroup of stramenopila:
- – multicellular, marine
- – chl a, c, funcoxanthin
- – kelp
- – thallus (holdfast, stipe, blade, gas bladder)
- – kelp forests (keystone species) (sea otters)
- – alternation of generations
phaeophyta (brown algae)
alterations of multicellular haploid and diploid
alternation of generations
multicellular diploid organism that produces spores and is formed by meiosis
sporophyte
multicellular haploid organism that produces gametes by mitosis
gametophyte
subgroup of stramenopila:
- – fungi-like
- – have filaments (hyphae)
- – cell wall (cellulose)
- – decomposers or parasites
oomycota (oomycetes) (water molds)
subgroup of rhizaria:
- – unicellular
- – siliceous shells (tests)
- – actinopods (needle-like pseudopodia)
radiolaria (radiolarians)
subgroup of rhizaria:
- – unicellular
- – marine habitat
- – calcareous tests (calcium carbonate)
- – pseudopod (netlike)
- – calcareous sediment (limestone rocks)
- – relationship with zooxanthellae
- – symbiotic relationship
- – materials exchange
foraminifera (forams)
subgroup of rhizaria:
- – ameoboid or flagellated
- – most heterotrophs
- – Paulinella (autotroph)
- – chromatophore (evolved from cyanobacteria)
cercozoa (cercozoans)
subgroup of archaeplastida:
- – multicellular
- – chl a, phycoerythrins or phycobilins
- – live in deep water
- – sexual reproduction with AG
- – E.g. coralline algae
- – human uses (phycocolloid)
- – algar (gel)
- – carrageenan (ice cream stabilizer)
rhodophyta (red algae)
subgroup of archaeplastida:
- – most close to land plants
- – chl a and b
- – unicellular, multicellular
- – asexual
- – fragmentation
- – sexual (AG)
- – sporophyte
- – gametophyte (dominant) (heteromorphic)
- – E.g. volvox, ulva (sea lettuce) (isomorphic)
chlorophyta (green algae)
subgroup of unikonta:
- – synapomorphies
- – amoeba
- – lobe-shaped pseudopodia
amoebazoa
subgroup of amoebazoa:
- – unicellular
- – amorphous (no stable shape)
- – pseudopodia
- – asexual reproduction
- – variable living environments
- – predators (eat paramecium)
gymnamoeba (free-living amoebas)
subgroup of amoebazoa:
— parasites of verts/inverts
— histolytica (amoebic dysentery)
(intestinal disease)
entamoeba (parasitic amoebas)
subgroup of amoebazoa:
— bright colored (yellow/orange)
— plasmodium (weblike multinucleate mass,
feeding phase)
myxomycota (plasmodial slime molds)
subgroup of amoebazoa:
— multicellular “slug” when lack of food
acrasiomycota (cellular slime molds)
subgroup of unikonta:
- – choanoflagellates
- – small size (10 um)
- – single flagellum surrounded by microvilli)
- – phylogenetically close to animals
opisthokonta (opisthokonts)
modified mitochondria
mitosomes
reduced mitochondria
hydrogenosomes
starch related energy storage molecule
paramylon
has dense organelles, penetrates host cells
apex (apical complex)
needle-like pseudopodia
actinopods
small membrane-bound sacs
alveoli
What disease does the parasite Plasmodium cause?
malaria
thallus breaks into pieces, each grows into a new alga (e.g. drift alga)
fragmentation
What disease is caused by Entamoeba histolytica?
amoebic dysentery (intestinal disease)
Which group does the paramecium belong to (which phylum)?
Ciliophora (ciliate)
a sexual process in which there is exchange of haploid micronuclei
conjugation
gold/yellow pigment
xanthophyll
brown/yellow pigment
funcoxanthin
red pigment
phycoerythrins or phycobilins
Is green algae monophyletic, paraphyletic, or polyphyletic?
monophyletic
Which group is commonly agreed to be close to the animal kingdom?
opisthokonta
What are the ecological roles of protists?
- symbiotic parasites
- parasitic parasites
- photosynthetic protists
- – multicellular
- – cell wall (cellulose)
- – photosynthetic
- – chloroplasts (chl a and b, carotenoids)
- – Alternation of Generations
- – dominant in nearly all terrestrial communities
- – major producers
- – two groups
- nonvascular
- vascular
general characteristics of plants
- – alternation of generations
- – multicellular dependent embryos
- – placental transfer cell
- – embryophytes
- – sporangia
- – sporopollenin-covered spores
- – multicellular gametangia
- – apical meristem
derived traits of plants
cluster of embryonic cells at the tip of shoots and roots
apical meristem
What is the closest relative of the kingdom Plantae?
green algae (charophytes)
What 7 features and data support the close relationship between the Kingdom Plantae and green algae (Charophytes)?
- chloroplasts (chl a and b)
- cellulose and starch
- cell plate
- molecular data (rRNA gene)
- proteins
- flagellated sperm
- phragmoplast
What are the 5 adaptations for plants to be able to live on land?
- cell wall
- sporopollenin
- waxy cuticle
- mycorrhizae
- vascular tissue
cellulose plant fiber
cell wall
protects spores
sporopollenin
covering of the epidermis of a plant
waxy cuticle
mutualistic relationship between fungi and roots
mycorrhizae
water transport and support
vascular tissue
organs where sporophytes produce spores
sporangia
organs where gametophytes produce gametes
gametangia
life cycles alternate between 2 generations, haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte
alternation of generations
Which 3 phyla are classified under bryophytes (non-vascular plants)?
- Hepatophyta (liverworts)
- Anthocerophyta (hornworts)
- Bryophyta (mosses)
- – no vascular tissue
- – gametophyte dominant over sporophytes
- – no true leaves, stems, or roots (rhizoids)
- – small, moist places
general characteristics of bryophytes
subgroup of bryophytes:
- – gametophytes (larger, long-lived)
- – thalloid (flattened shaped gametophytes)
- – rhizoids (one-celled)
- – reproduction
- – sexual (AG)
- – asexual (gemmae)
hepatophyta (liverworts)
subgroup of bryophytes:
- – sporophyte (long)
- – thalloid gametophytes
- – single chloroplast
anthocerophyta (hornworts)
flattened shaped gametophytes
thalloid
subgroup of bryophytes:
--- gametophytes (leaves - spirally arranged, thin)
--- sporophytes (elongated)
--- seta (stalk)
--- capsule (sporangium)
--- peristome (tooth-like capsule mouth)
(responds to moisture)
--- rhizoids (filaments of cells)bryophyta (mosses)
- – common in moist conditions
- – help retain nitrogen in soil
- – some survive in extreme environments
- – sphagnum
- – peatland
- – fuel source
- – archaeological site
ecological importance of mosses (bryophyta)
peat mosses
sphagnum
What are the differences between xylem and phloem?
Xylem contains dead cells (tracheids), while phloem contains living cells. Xylem contains lignin (thick walls stiffened), while phloem does not. Xylem only transports water and minerals upward, while phloem transports food in all directions.
- – vascular tissue
- – xylem
- – phloem
- – sporophytes > gametophytes
- – true leaves, stems, and roots
- – microphylls vs. megaphylls
- – sporophylls
- – seeds (highly resistant)
- – seedless
- – seed-forming
general characteristics of vascular plants
have needle-like leaves
microphylls
have branching leaves
megaphylls
bears sporangia (highly specialized) (brown dots on back of leaf)
sporophylls
subgroup of vascular plants:
- – small, resemble mosses
- – microphylls
- – homosporous and heterosporous
- – e.g. quillworts, club mosses, spike mosses
lycophyta (club mosses)
type of pterophyta:
- – megaphylls (fronds)
- – homosporous
- – sori
- – rhizome
ferns (pterophyta)
clusters of sporangia on sporophylls
sori
horizontal stems (cannot absorb)
rhizome
type of pterophyta:
- – lack leaves and true roots
- – rhizomes
- – homosporous
whisk ferns (psilophyta)
type of pterophyta:
- – bushy leaves
- – homosporous
- – rhizomes
- – strobili
horsetails (sphenophyta or arthophyta)
What are the 4 groups under vascular plants?
- lycophyta (club mosses)
- pterophyta (ferns)
- psilophyta (whisk ferns)
- sphenophyta/arthrophyta (horsetails)
gametangia containing the egg
archegonia
gametangia containing the sperm
antheridia
What are tracheids?
dead cells
— seeds
— embryo
— food supply (female gametophyte tissue -
haploid)
— seed coat (integument)
— reduced gametophytes
— heterospory
— megaspore
— microspore
— ovules
— megasporangium
— megaspore
— integuments
— pollen
— microspores
— pollen grains
— pollen wall: sporopollenin/male
gametophyte: two sperm cells
— pollination
— monophyletic
common features of seed plants
fertilized egg (developed from megaspore)
embryo
makes megagametophyte, which makes archegonia with eggs
megaspore
makes microgametophyte, which makes antheridia, producing sperm
microspore
Which 4 phyla are under gymnosperms?
- Cycadophyta (cycads)
- Ginkgophyta (ginkgos)
- Gnetophyta (gnetophytes)
- Coniferophyta (conifers)
subgroup of gymnosperms:
- – monophyletic
- – slow-growing
- – tall
- – large cones and palm-like leaves
- – unusual, large sperm
- – dioecious
Cycadophyta (cycads)
subgroup of gymnosperms:
- – single living species
- – dioecious
- – cultivation in china and japan
- – no significant natural distribution
- – deciduous
- – resistant to insects, disease, air pollution
- – female forms seed
Ginkgophyta (ginkgos)
What is the single living species in the phylum Ginkgophyta (ginkgos)?
Ginkgo bilboa
subgroup of gymnosperms:
- – Gnetum (tropics)
- – Welwitschia (Desserts - dry)
- – Ephedra (arid, worldwide)
- – molecular data (pulls 3 together)
Gnetophyta (gnetophytes)
subgroup of gymnosperms:
--- monophyletic
--- largest gymnosperm group
--- worldwide, but common in cold/dry areas
--- evergreen
--- adaptations
--- microphyll (vascular) (needle-like leaves)
--- thick cuticle
--- importance
--- conifer forest (monicerous)
--- sequoia (redwood)
--- Sequoiadendron gigantea (world's tallest
tree)
--- bristlecone pine
--- Methuselah - pinus longaeva (world's oldest
treeConiferophyta (conifers)
What adaptations do fruits develop to enhance seed dispersal?
barbs, seeds with berries, ect.
What are the key features of the angiosperm life cycle?
most are cross-pollination; double fertilization
occurs when the pollen tube discharges 2 sperm into each ovule
— one sperm fertilizes the egg, forming a zygote
— the other fertilizes the central cell, forming the
endosperm, for food supply
double fertilization
What are the 3 basal groups included with angiosperms?
- magnoliids
- monocots
- eudicots
group of angiosperm:
- – Amborella trichopoda
- – lacks vessels
- – Water Lily (lotus)
- – Star Anise (fruit)
basal
basal group of angiosperm:
— trimerous flowers
— branching-veined leaves
— e.g. magnolia, laurel, cinnamon, avocado
— economic uses (food, drugs, timber, ornamental
trees)
magnoliids
basal group of angiosperm:
- – embryos: one cotyledon
- – leaves: parallel veins
- – stem: scattered vascular tissue
- – root: no main root
- – pollen: one pore
- – flower: in multiples of 3
- – herbs
- – e.g. grasses, lillies, orchids, onions
monocots
basal group of angiosperm:
- – embryos: 2 cotyledons
- – leaves: netlike
- – stem: ring-shaped vascular tissues
- – root: taproot
- – pollen: 3 pores
- – flower: in multiples of 4 or 5
- – woods
- – e.g. all other plants
eudicots
Name the part of the flower:
- enclose the flower
- brightly colored, attract pollinators
- produce pollen (male)
- produce ovules (female)
- sepals
- petals
- stamens
- carpels
What is the function of the outgroup?
An out group is selected so that its members are closely related to the group of species being studied, but not as closely related as any study group members are to each other
How are outgroups selected?
A suitable out group can be determined based on evidence from morphology, paleontology, embryonic development, and gene sequences
a character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon
shared ancestral character
an evolutionary novelty unique to a clade
shared derived character
a staining method that distinguishes between two different kinds of bacterial cell walls; may be used to help determine medical response to an infection
gram stain
a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome; found in some eukaryotes, such as yeast
plasmid
an organism that lives in environmental conditions so extreme that few other species can survive there
extremophiles
an organism that lives in a highly saline environment, such as the Great Salt Lake or the Dead Sea
halophile
an organism that thrives in hot environments (often 60-80 degrees celcius or hotter)
thermophile
an organism that produces methane as a waste product of the way it obtains energy
methangen
an organism that harnesses light energy to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide
photoautotroph
an organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or substances derived from them
heterotroph
an organism that obtains organic food molecules without eating other organisms or substances derived from other organisms; uses energy from sun or oxidation of inorganic substances to make organic molecules from inorganic ones
autotroph
located inside each flagella in euglenozoans
crystalline rod
causes malaria, lives mainly inside cells (hidden from host’s immune system), continually changes surface proteins
plasmodium
siliceous shells
tests
multinucleate filaments found in oomcyetes (water molds)
hyphae
site of photosynthesis in Paulinella (cercozoan); surrounded by a membrane with peptidoglycan layer; derived from cyanobacteria
chromatophore
an algal body that is plantlike; lacks true stems, roots, and leaves
thallus
anchors alga
holdfast
supports blades
stipe
leaflike; provide most of alga’s photosynthetic surface
blades
gas-filled, bubble-shaped floats that help keep the blades up near the surface of the water
gas-bladder
means of food and movement for amoebas; extensions that may bulge from almost anywhere on the surface
pseudopodia
weblike multinucleate mass in feeding phase of myxomycota
plasmodium
finger-like projections of the epithelial cells in the lumen of the small intestine that increase its surface area
microvilli
episodes of explosive population growth, or blooms, in dinoflagellates
red tide
What causes the red tide?
The blooms make coastal waters appear brownish red or pink because of the presence of caratenoids, the most common pigment in dinoflagellate plastids
responsible for green pigment in green algae
chlorophyll b
present in all plants, algae, and cyanobacteria (pigment)
chlorophyll a
pigment present in chromista and dinoflagellates
chlorophyll c
a haploid cell produced in the sporophyte by meiosis
spore
a haploid reproductive cell, such as the egg or sperm
gamete
alternating generations in plants and certain algae in which the sporophytes and gametophytes look alike, although they differ in chromosome number
isomorphic
referring to a condition in the life cycle of plants and certain algae in which the sporophyte and gametophyte generations differ in morphology
heteromorphic
Paulinella conducts photosynthesis in a unique structure called a chromatophore. Chromatophores are surrounded by a membrane with a peptidoglycan layer suggesting that they are derived from a bacteria. DNA evidence indicates that chromatophores are derived from a different cyanobacterium than that from which other plastids are derived
endosymbiosis hypothesis
a process in which a unicellular organism (the host) engulfs another cell, which lives within the host cell and ultimately becomes an organelle in the host cell
endosymbiosis
a process in eukaryotic evolution in which a heterotrophic eukaryotic cell engulfed a photosynthetic eukaryotic cell, which survived in a symbiotic relationship inside the heterotrophic cell
secondary endosymbiosis
Why can red algae live in deeper water, compared to brown or green algae?
Their accessory pigments, including phycoerythrin, allow them to absorb blue and green light, which penetrate relatively far into the water
long, tubular single cells (in liverworts and hornworts) or filaments of cells (in mosses)
rhizoid
fuel source, archaeological site
peatland
stiffens thick walls of xylem
lignin
megaphylls
fronds
referring to plant species that has a single kind of spore, which typically develops into a bisexual gametophyte
homosporous
two kinds of spores, microspores (develop into male gametophytes) and megaspores (develop into female gametophytes)
heterosporous
cluster of sporophylls known commonly as a cone, found in most gymnosperms and some seedless vascular plants
strobilus
What are the evolutionary advantages of seeds vs. spores?
long life, seed coat
edible part of fruit
pericarp
layer of sporophyte tissue that contributes to the structure of an ovule of a seed
integument
in seed plants, a structure consisting of the male gametophyte enclosed within pollen wall
pollen grain
a plant that nourishes itself but browns on the surface of another plant for support, usually on the branches or trunks of trees
epiphyte
nutrient-rich tissue formed by union of sperm with 2 polar nuclei during double fertilization and provides nourishment to developing embryo
endosperm
a seed leaf of an angiosperm embryo; some species have one, some have 2
cotyledon
