Final Flashcards
1
Q
This plan has 2 openings, one for food to enter the body (mouth) (digestive tract), and one for wastes to leave the body (anus)(coelom)
A
tube-within-a-tube
2
Q
three germ layers in a very early embryo
A
triploblasty
3
Q
Which 3 germ layers does triploblasty refer to?
A
- endoderm (innermost layer, develops into many internal organs)
- mesoderm (middle layer, forms muscles, connective tissue, etc.)
- ectoderm (outside layer, forms nervous systems, epidermis, etc.)
4
Q
What are the 4 levels of hierarchal organization in an animal body plan? Briefly describe each.
A
- cell (basic unit, hundreds of types)
- tissue
- organ (structural and functional unit made of more than one tissue type; e.g. heart)
- organ system ( group of organs functioning together to perform a major body activity; e.g. circulatory system)
5
Q
What are the 4 typical types of tissues in an animal body plan?
A
- epithelial
- connective
- muscle
- nervous
6
Q
tissue derived from all 3 germ layers; tightly joined, thin, regeneration, polarized; functions to cover and protect body surfaces, barrier agains pathogens and water loss, active interfaces for material exchanges; form glands
A
epithelial tissue
7
Q
tissue derived from mesoderm; scattered cells, loosely packed matrix
A
connective tissue
8
Q
tissue derived from mesoderm; functions as movement motor
A
muscle tissue
9
Q
tissue derived from ectoderm; highly specialized with little cell division in adults; functions in the receipt, processing, and transmission of electrical signals
A
nervous tissue
10
Q
List the 3 cell shapes of epithelial tissue.
A
- sqamous
- cuboidal
- columnar
11
Q
What are the 6 major types of connective tissue?
A
- loose connective tissue
- cartilage
- fibrous connective tissue
- adipose tissue
- blood
- bone
12
Q
type of connective tissue that binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place
A
loose connective tissue
13
Q
type of connective tissue that is a strong and flexible supportive material
A
cartilage
14
Q
type of connective tissue that is dense, with collagenous fibers (includes tendons and ligaments)
A
fibrous connective tissue
15
Q
type of connective tissue that stores fat for insulation and fuel
A
adipose tissue
16
Q
liquid connective tissus that includes plasma, erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets
A
blood
17
Q
mineralized connective tissue that forms the skeleton
A
bone
18
Q
What are the 3 types of muscle tissue?
A
- skeletal muscle
- smooth muscle
- cardiac muscle
19
Q
muscle tissue:
- attached to bones by tendons
- for voluntary movements
- multinucleate cells - muscle fibers
- sarcomere
A
skeletal muscle
20
Q
muscle tissue:
- lack striations
- single nucleus
- found in many blood vessel walls, wall of guts, arteries, etc.
- involuntary body activities
A
smooth muscle
21
Q
muscle tissue:
- striated
- single nucleus
- intercalated disk - interconnection between cells
- forms the contractile wall of the heart
A
cardiac muscle
22
Q
part of the neuron that has a nucleus and serves as the control center of the neuron
A
cell body
23
Q
part of the neuron that has branched extensions, receives signals and transmits them to the cell body
A
dendrite
24
Q
part of the neuron that is a single extension of the cytoplasm and transmits the signal away
A
axon
25
this cavity includes the heart and lungs
thoracic cavity
26
this cavity is located inside the peritoneal cavity and includes the stomach, intestines, liver, etc.
abdominal cavity
27
a sheet of muscle that forms the bottom wall of the thoracic cavity
diaphragm
28
epithelial cells that have an irregular, flattened shape with tapered edges
squamous epithelium
29
epithelial cells that are about the same height, width, and depth
cuboidal epithelium
30
epithelial cells that are taller than they are wide
columnar epithelium
31
a type of cell in loose connective tissue that secretes the protein ingredients of the extracellular fibers (matrix proteins)
fibroblast
32
a phagocytic cell present in many tissues that functions in innate immunity by destroying microbes and in acquired immunity as an antigen-presenting cell; engulfs foreign particles
macrophage
33
attaches muscle to bone
tendon
34
connects bones at joints
ligament
35
the liquid matrix of blood in which the blood cells are suspended
blood plasma
36
red blood cell; contains hemoglobin which transports oxygen
erythrocyte
37
white blood cell; functions in fighting infections
leukocyte
38
a pinched-off cytoplasmic fragment of a specialized bone marrow cell; important in blood clotting
platelet
39
an arrangement of contractile units long the skeletal muscle fibers, striped appearance
sarcomere
40
a specialized junction between cardiac muscle cells that provides direct electrical coupling between the cells (interconnection between cells)
intercalated disk
41
a nerve cell; the fundamental unit of the nervous system, having structure and properties that allow it to conduct signals by taking advantage of the electrical charge across its plasma membrane (transmits nerve impulses)
neuron
42
wrapped around the axon of a neuron; an insulating coat of cell membranes from Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes; interrupted by nodes of Ranvier, where action potentials are generated
myelin sheath
43
cells of the nervous system that support, regulate, and augment the functions of neurons (help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons)
glia (glial cells)
44
What are 3 types of digestion?
1. none (parasites)
2. intracellular (no digestive cavity)
3. extracellular (have true digestive cavity)
45
What are the 4 types of extracellular digestion?
1. incomplete digestive system
2. complete digestive system
3. mechanical digestion
4. chemical digestion
46
type of extracellular digestion:
1. one opening
2. not specialized gastrovascular cavity
3. e.g. jellyfish, flatworms
incomplete digestive system
47
type of extracellular digestion:
1. two openings
2. specialized digestive tract
3. e.g. earthworms, mollusks, vertebrates
complete digestive system
48
type of extracellular digestion:
| 1. break down large food parts into small pieces by grinding mechanisms
mechanical digestion
49
type of extracellular digestion:
| 1. break down large food molecules into small pieces by chemical reactions (hydrolysis)
chemical digestion
50
an animal that regularly eats animals as well as plants or algae
omnivore
51
How does swallowing keep food out of the respiratory tract?
the epiglottis blocks entry to the trachea, and the bolus is guided by the larynx
52
In the _______, food is moistened and lubricated with saliva (enzyme ________ to digest carbs and sugars). The _______ helps with swallowing. The ________ conducts food from the pharynx down to the stomach by ________ which is controlled by a sphincter.
```
mouth
amylase
pharynx
esophagus
peristalsis
```
53
What are the 3 types of cells in the stomach and what are their functions?
1. mucous cells (secrete mucous)
2. chief cells (secrete pepsinogen)
3. parietal cells (secrete HCl)
54
a ring-like band of muscle fibers that controls the size of an opening in the body, such as the passage between the esophagus and the stomach
sphincter
55
What are the 3 parts of the small intestine?
1. duodenum
2. jejunum
3. ileum
56
the first section of the small intestine, where chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder as well as from gland cells of the intestinal wall; absorbs fats; pH 6-6.5
duodenum
57
a large intestinal organ that performs diverse functions' such as producing bile, maintaining blood glucose level, and detoxifying poisonous chemicals in the blood
liver
58
What are the 3 parts of the large intestine and what are the functions of each part?
1. cecum (fermentation chamber or storage; vestigial appendix)
2. colon (re-absorb water; ascending, transverse, and descending parts)
3. rectum (stores feces until eliminated; terminal)
59
What are 3 evolutionary adaptations of animals that helps them digest different food sources?
1. teeth
2. stomach and intestinal adaptations
3. mutualistic adaptations
60
a complete digestive tract, consisting of a tube running between a mouth and an anus
alimentary canal
61
a gland associated with the oral cavity that secretes substances that lubricate food and begin the process of chemical digestion
salivary gland
62
a gland with exocrine and endocrine tissues; the exocrine portion functions in digestion, secreting enzymes and an alkaline solution into the small intestine via a duct; the ductless endocrine portion functions in homeostasis, secreting the hormones insulin and glucagon into the blood
pancreas
63
an area in the vertebrate throat where air and food passages cross
pharynx
64
a mixture of substances that is produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder; enables formation of fat droplets in water as an aid in the digestion and absorption of fats
bile
65
an enzyme present in gastric juice that begins the hydrolysis of proteins
pepsin
66
the inactive form of pepsin secreted by chief cells located in the gastric pits of the stomach
pepsinogen
67
a finger-like projection of the inner surface of the small intestine
villus (plural villi)
68
one of many fine, finger-like projections of the epithelial cells in the lumen of the small intestine that increase its surface area
microvillus (microvilli)
69
an animal, such as a cow or sheep, with multiple stomach compartments specialized for an herbivorous diet
ruminant
70
an animal that mainly eats plants or algae
herbivore
71
an animal that mainly eats other animals
carnivore
72
What are the 3 main differences between open and closed circulatory systems?
```
Open:
1. blood = interstitial fluid (hemolymph)
2. less efficient
3. no blood vessels
Closed:
1. blood does not equal interstitial fluid
2. more efficient
3. blood vessels
```
73
How do hearts vary in amphibians, reptiles, and mammals?
```
amphibians:
2 atrium
1 ventricle
3 chambers
reptiles:
2 atrium
1 ventricle
3 chambers
mammals:
2 atrium
2 ventricles
4 chambers
```
74
What are the 3 cellular elements of blood plasma?
1. erythrocytes (red blood cells)
2. leukocytes (white blood cells)
3. platelets
75
cellular element of blood plasma:
1. most numerous
2. have hemoglobin to carry oxygen
3. lack nuclei and mitochondria
4. live for 120 days
5. formed in bone marrow
erythrocytes
76
cellular element of blood plasma:
1. 1% of blood cells
2. larger, nucleated
3. no hemoglobin
4. 5 types (monocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils)
5. function: immunity
leukocytes
77
cellular element of blood plasma:
1. cell fragments
2. function: blood clotting (enzymatic cascade)
platelets
78
pressure that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel
blood pressure
79
outfoldings of epithelial tissues with capillaries; countercurrent flow of blood to water; only in aquatic animals
gills
80
ventilates lungs by positive pressure breathing; alveoli sac - gas exchange; much of exchange is through skin
amphibian lungs
81
8-9 air sacs + lung
air: one way flow (two cycle pump)
more efficient than human
cross-current flow
bird lungs
82
ventilate lungs by negative pressure breathing; by rib muscles and diaphragm contractions; inhalation (contract external rib intercostals and diaphragm); exhalation (relax muscle, chest cavity back into place)
mammal lungs
83
air flows at a 90 degree angle in relation to blood flow
cross-current flow
84
two fluids flowing in opposite directions
countercurrent flow
85
In insects, a system of branched, air-filled tubes that extends throughout the body and carries oxygen directly to cells
tracheal system
86
a breathing system in which air is forced into the lungs
positive pressure breathing
87
a breathing system in which air is pulled into the lungs
negative pressure breathing
88
Which 2 brain structures control breathing and how?
1. medulla oblongata (regulates the rate and depth of breathing)
2. pons (regulate the tempo)
89
What are the roles of hemoglobin and hemocyanin?
to transport oxygen
90
What are the 3 differences between hemocyanin and hemoglobin?
```
Hemocyanin:
1. in mollusks, arthropods, etc.
2. free in hemolymph, not in cells
3. bind with copper
Hemoglobin:
1. all vertebrates, many invertebrates
2. in erythrocytes
3. bind with 4 irons
```
91
CO2 is transported by _______ and ________ of red blood cells. Loading occurs in the _____. Unloading occurs in the ________.
hemoglobin
cytoplasm
tissues
lungs
92
prevent backflow of blood
valves
93
a chamber of the vertebrate heart that receives blood from the veins and transfers blood to a ventricle
atrium
94
a heart chamber that pumps blood out of the heart
ventricle
95
cluster of cardiac cells; pacemaker; starts impulse at atria; send impulse to AV node
SA node (sinoatrial node)
96
sends impulse to the apex of the heart
AV node (atrioventricular node)
97
contract both left and right ventricles almost simultaneously
Purdkinje fibers
98
pass blood from arteries, across tissues, to veins
capillaries
99
the simple squamous layer of cells lining the lumen of blood vessels
endothelium
100
the contraction or pumping phase of the cardiac cycle
systole
101
the relaxation or filling phase of the cardiac cycle
diastole
102
a type of white blood cell that mediates immune responses (includes B cells and T cells)
lymphocyte
103
the most abundant type of white blood cell; phagocytic and tend to self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their life span to a few days
neutrophil
104
multi-functional serine protease that is involved in a number of activitives within the body
thrombin
105
dissolved CO2 lowers pH, decreases affinity of hemoglobin for O2
bohr shift
106
What are the 3 types of muscle?
1. smooth
2. skeletal
3. cardiac
107
Type of muscle:
1. mainly in digestive tract
2. long, spindle-shaped, mononuclear cells
3. slow, spontaneous contractions initiated by muscles
4. not striated
smooth muscle
108
Type of muscle:
1. found only in the heart
2. striated
3. generate action potential
4. connected by intercalated disks - gap junctions
cardiac
109
Type of muscle:
1. long, multinucleate muscle fibers
2. for rapid contraction
3. controlled by nerve tissue
4. myofibrils arranged longitudinally (actin/myosin)
skeletal
110
the regular arrangement of myofilaments creates a pattern of light and dark bands (darker A band with lighter I band)
striated muscle
111
What are the 3 types of skeletons?
1. hydrostatic (lack hard parts)
2. exoskeleton (external hard parts)
3. endoskeletons (internal hard parts)
112
Type of skeleton:
1. soft-bodied invertebrates
2. body fluids create pressure
hydrostatic skeleton
113
Type of skeleton:
1. arthropods have jointed cuticle, made of chitin
2. others are found in mollusks
exoskeleton
114
Type of skeleton:
1. hard internal skeleton
2. covered by soft tissues
3. mainly in vertebrates and echinoderms
endoskeleton
115
an electrical signal that propagates (travels) along the membrane of a neuron or other excitable cell as a nongraded (all-or-none) depolarization
action potential
116
a specialized junction between cardiac muscle cells that provides direct electrical coupling between the cells
intercalated disk
117
a longitudinal bundle in a muscle cell (fiber) that contains thin filaments of actin and regulatory proteins and thick filaments of myosin
myofibril
118
a globular protein that links into chains, two of which twist helically about each other, forming microfilaments in muscle and other kinds of cells
actin
119
a type of motor protein that associates into filaments that interact with actin filaments to cause cell contraction
myosin
120
the regulatory protein that blocks the myosin-binding sites on actin molecules
tropomyosin
121
the regulatory proteins that control the position of tropomyosin on the thin filament
troponin complex
122
the fundamental repeating unit of striated muscle, delimited by the Z lines
sarcomere
123
cells in cartilage that secrete collagen and chondroitin sulfate, which give cartilage its strong yet flexible support material
chondrocyte
124
repeating unit that makes up the microscopic structure of hard mammalian bone
osteon
125
What does a digestive system do?
processes food
126
What has gone wrong in the swallowing process when someone is choking?
swallowing reflex failure
127
Give an example of a sphincter.
esophageal sphincter
128
parts of the small intestine that function mainly in absorption of nutrients and water
jéjunum and ileum
129
Give the mutualistic adaptation of each animal:
1. Horse
2. Koala
3. Rabbit
4. Cow
1. enlarged cecum to host mutualistic microorganisms
2. enlarged cecum for mutualistic bacteria to ferment eucalyptus leaves
3. coprophagy (feed on feces to pass food through alimentary canal twice)
4. 4 chamber stomach
130
What compounds in your food can generally be used for energy storage?
fats, proteins, carbohydrates
131
irritation of the esophagus caused by acid reflux, a back flow of chyme from the stomach into the lower end of the esophagus
heartburn
132
pancreatic enzymes secreted into the duodenum in inactive forms
trypsin and chymotrypsin
133
first chamber of a ruminant stomach (food enters here first)
rumen
134
third chamber of ruminant stomach (reswallowed cud goes here where water is removed)
omasum
135
fourth and final chamber of ruminant stomach (food enters here last for digestion by enzymes)
abomasum
136
Why would an animal need a circulatory system?
links exchange surfaces with cells throughout the body
137
What are the 2 main differences between arteries and veins?
```
ARTERIES:
1. thick walls (elastic recoil)
2. blood flow to body
VEINS:
1. thin walls
2. blood flow to heart
```
138
Explain the process of taking someone's blood pressure.
sphygmomanometer (inflatable cuff)
1. cuff inflates = closed artery = cuff pressure > artery pressure
2. cuff deflates = cuff pressure < artery pressure
3. continued deflation = diastolic pressure
139
Explain the mammalian air pathway.
Pharynx ---> Larynx ---> Trachea ----> Bronchi ---> Branchioles ---> Alveoli
140
conveys blood to arteries leading throughout the body
aorta
141
large vein that drains blood from trunk and hind limbs
inferior vena cava
142
large vein that channels blood from the head, neck, and forelimbs
superior vena cava
143
return O2 rich blood from lungs to left atrium of heart
pulmonary veins
144
pump blood from right ventricle of heart to lungs
pulmonary arteries
145
one of a pair of breathing tubes that branch from the trachea into the lungs
bronchus (plural bronchi)
146
a fine branch of the bronchi that transports air to the aveoli
bronchiole
147
What are skeletons used for?
converting muscle contraction to movement
148
Why would an animal need a respiratory system?
To convert oxygen in the air into a usable form in the blood stream
149
basophil
type of white blood cell (leukocyte) that is characterized histologically by its ability to be stained by basic dyes and functionally by its role in mediating hypersensitivity reactions of the immune system
150
eosinophil
type of white blood cell (leukocyte) that is characterized histologically by its ability to be stained by acidic dyes (e.g., eosin) and functionally by its role in mediating certain types of allergic reactions
151
What do you need other than energy storage from your food?
vitamins and minerals (calcium, magnesium, fluoride, vitamin D)
