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SOC100 > Test 1 > Flashcards

Test 1 Flashcards

Study Notes for Test 1

1
Q

Sociology

A
  • systematic study of human action in social context

- relations with other people create opportunites for us to think and act but also set limits on our thoughts and acton

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2
Q

Ontology vs. Epistemology

A

Ontology: What is real?
-Objectivist: objects have objective existence independent of herself or any other research
-process of finding things already there
-Constructivist: meanings social actors attach to social phenomena are constructed by actors
-dynamic meaning
Epistemology: How do we know what we know?
-Positivist: he can best know things through experiments + collection + analysis of data
-Interpretive: how ppl make sense of world around them
-understand subjective meaning of social action

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3
Q

Birth of Sociology

A 
Scientific revolution (16th c.): encouraged the use of evidence.
Democratic revolution (18th c.): human action can change society.
Industrial revolution (19th c.): gave sociologists their subject matter
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4
Q

Sociological Perspectve

A
  • identify general patterns in behaviour of particular individuals
  • society acts differently on various categories of people
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5
Q

Sociological Explanation of Suicide

A

-Émile Durkheim
-varied as result of differences in degree of social solidarity
-Altruistic: group’s interest
-Egoistic: lack social ties
-Anomic: lack of shared morality/norms

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6
Q

Social Solidarity

A
  • degree to which group members share beliefs and values

- the intensity and frequency of their interaction

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7
Q

Social Structures

A
  • patterns of social relations affect our thoughts, feelings, actions, and identity
  • 3 levels
  • how are they maintained?
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8
Q

Microstructures:

A

-intimate social relations (friends, family)

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9
Q

Macrostructures:

A

-outside intimate relations (class relations)

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10
Q

Global Structures

A

-organizations, economic relations

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11
Q

Sociological Imagination

A
  • see links between the personal problems and social issues/structures
  • occupation, income, education, gender, age, ethnicity, family, mass media and others
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12
Q

The Social Effects

A 
- Opinions
•  Values
•  Beliefs
•  Knowledge
•  Habits
•  Tastes
•  Desires
•  Dreams
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13
Q

Reality

A

-shaped by society

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14
Q

Origins of Sociology

A
  • Auguste Compte 1838

- scientific method of research + vision of ideal society

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15
Q

Theory

A

explanation of aspect of social life

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16
Q

Sociological Research

A

observation of social reality to test theory
-objective:
- Describing
• Understanding
• Influencing or improving the social world

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17
Q

Values

A
  • right/wrong, good/bad
  • neutral: refrain from imposing own values on research
  • relevance: research can never be value free
  • how it impacts research, understand role it plays
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18
Q

Functionalism

A
  1. behaviour - patterns of social relations
  2. structures maintain stability
  3. based on shared values
  4. re-establish equilibrium
    - Talcott Parsons - institutions must work together
    - Robert Merton - manifest/latent functions
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19
Q

Conflict Theory

A
  1. focus on macro
  2. inequality produce stability/change
  3. ongoing power struggle between classes
  4. decrease privilege = decrease conflict
    - Marx - communist
    - rich get richer
    - class consciousness - unions
    - Weber: growth of service sector
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20
Q

Symbolic Interactionism

A
  • understand meanings + motives
  • George Herbert Mead
    1. focus on face-face + micro social setting
    2. understanding meanings we attach to social circumstance
    3. ppl create social circumstance
    4. increase understanding + tolerance of ppl different
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21
Q

Feminist Theory

A

Harriet Martineau - first female sociologist

  1. focus on patriarchy
  2. male domination - structures of power + social convention
  3. operation of patriarchy in macro/micro setting
  4. gender inequality - way brought up, barriers to equal opportunity, unequal domestic responsibilities
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22
Q

Attributes vs. Variables

A

Attributes: characteristics that describe people, cases or things (Man or woman)
Variables: logical groupings of attributes (Gender)

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23
Q

data and theory

A

Data: are empirical facts, meaningful when they are considered in relation to a theory
Theory: a tentative explanation of some observed regularity

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24
Q

Social Constructionism

A
  • when people interact, they typically assume things are naturally
  • sustained by social processes that vary historically and culturally
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25
Q

dialects of social research: Idiographic

vs. Nomothetic

A

Idiographic: explaining one case in great detail
Nomothetic: explaining a set of cases using a handful of factors

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26
Q

dialects of social research: Inductive vs Deductive

A

Inductive: Thinking moves from observations to the
general (observation - theory/explanation)
Deductive: Thinking moves from the general to a specific (theory - prove/disprove)

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27
Q

dialects of social research: Quantitative vs Qualitative

A

Quantitative: numbers
Qualitative: themes, opinions, feelings

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28
Q

dialects of social research: Pure vs. Applied Research

A

Pure: Research interested in understanding Applied: Research interested in application

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29
Q

Affinity vs. Dogmatism:
Theories
Concepts

A 
Theories = models
Concepts = clusters of cases that allow to distinguish two things from each other
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30
Q

approaches to science:

Objectivity vs. Subjectivity

A

Objectivity – Observation occurs in a neutral fashion without being influenced by theory or cultural or personal assumptions
- doesn’t matter who is looking
žSubjectivity – Observation influenced by theory or cultural or personal assumptions
-notice different patterns

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31
Q

Main Methods of Research

A
  1. Field Methods
  2. Experiments
  3. Surveys
  4. Analysis of existing documents and official statistics
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32
Q

Values Role in Research

A
  1. help decide problems worth investigating
  2. formulate + adopt theories for explaining/interpreting problem
  3. interpretations influenced by previous research
  4. methods used mould perceptions
    - choice: values play role every time choice is made
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33
Q

Agreement vs. Experimental Reality

A

Agreement: knowledge is part of culture
Experimental: knowledge from experience

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34
Q

ordinary human inquiry

A
  • Uses Causal and Probabilistic Reasoning
  • Tradition & Authority –> Provide us with starting points, but should not be the end
    Errors in Inquiry
  • Inaccurate Observations
  • Overgeneralization
  • Selective Observation: focus on situations that fit pattern
  • Illogical Reasoning
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35
Q

Reality: Premodern, Modern, Postmodern View

A

Premodern: saw things as they were
Modern: accepts diversity, sees things as subjective
Postmodern: nothing is real, only images from different POVs, personal viewpoint colours perception

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36
Q

Culture

A

-knowledge, language, values, customs, and material objects passed on from one generation to the next in a human group or society
-made up of ideas, behaviors, and material possessions
-How we think, How we act, What we
own, what we think and how we feel (“human
nature”)

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37
Q

Material culture

A

physical creations that we make, use, and share.

houses, tv

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38
Q

Nonmaterial culture

A
  • abstract human creations of society that influence people’s behaviour
  • Language, beliefs, values, rules of behaviors, family
  • learn through interaction
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39
Q

5 Characteristics of Culture

A
  1. Culture is shared
  2. Culture is learned
  3. Culture is taken for granted
  4. Culture is symbolic: meaningful to members
  5. Culture varies across time and place
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40
Q

Culture Shock

A
  • disorientation after being exposed to other cultures radically different
  • believe their culture is natural
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41
Q

Language

A

-influences our perception of
reality
-how we use it changes meaning
-language we use impacts how we understand/perceive something

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42
Q

Components of Culture

A
  1. Symbols: Is something that meaningfully represent something else
    - can have different meanings depending on context
  2. Language: system of symbols that expresses ideas and enables people to think and communicate with one another
  3. Values: collective ideas about what is right and wrong, good or bad, and desirable or undesirable
  4. Norms
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43
Q

Ethnocentrism

A

Tendency for person to judge other cultures by standards of their own culture
Danger: hierarchy of cultures, prejudice & discrimination

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44
Q

Cultural Relativism

A

Judging cultural practices and beliefs exclusively in the cultural context in which they appear
Danger: mostly incompatible with idea universal human rights

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45
Q

Globalization

A

process where separate economies, states, and cultures are tied together and people become aware of growing interdependence
-expansion of international trade and investment

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46
Q

Dominant Culture

A

culture of most powerful group in society
-cultural form that receives most support from
major institutions and constitutes the major belief system

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47
Q

Pop Culture

A

beliefs, practices, and objects mass-produced and mass distributed

  • music/films
  • share public opinion and behavior
  • Shapes perception and awareness of social issues
  • Promotes narrow definition of who people are and what they can be (Body, Race, Gender, Sex, etc)
  • available to everyone
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48
Q

Consumerism

A

Tendency to define ourselves in terms of
goods we purchase (e.g., we are what we wear, drive, etc.)
-motivated to make purchases because of
bombardment of advertising
-buy items that help define us as members of particular subculture
-acts as social control mechanism preventing countercultures from disrupting social order
(i) transforming deviations from mainstream into means of making money
(ii) enticing rebels to become entrepreneurs

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49
Q

Countercultures

A

subcultures that oppose

dominant values and seek to replace them (hippies, environmentalists)

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50
Q

Culture as Constrictive/Enabling Influence

A

constraining: limits choices
enabling: increases choices

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51
Q

Cultural Diversity

A
  • more to choose from: taste of food, music, clothes
  • inter-racial marriage
  • multicultural
  • piece together own cultural interests, practices, identity
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52
Q

Multiculturalism

A

Disagreement over school curricula

  • want school curricula to:
  • Reflect growing ethnic and racial diversity
  • Stress that all cultures have equal value
  • Promote self-esteem and economic success
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53
Q

Rights Revolution

A

-socially excluded groups struggled to
win equal rights under the law and in practice
-increased democracy

54
Q

Culture Change

A
  • response to changed conditions
  • change through cultural diffusion
  • result of innovation
  • can be imposed
55
Q

Homogenization of Cultures

A

-creates sameness

56
Q

Customs/Practices

A
  • ensure smooth operation
  • meet human needs
  • fulfill important functions
57
Q

Formal Norms

A

-laws: enforced by formal sanctions
-civil(disputes)/criminal(public safety)
Sanctions: rewards for appropriate behaviour/penalties for inappropriate behaviour
-authority

58
Q

Informal Norms

A

unwritten behaviour understood by ppl

-informal sanctions: frowning, negative comment

59
Q

Folkways

A

informal norms that can be violated without serious consequence (deodorant, not brushing teeth)

  • not often enforced
  • culture specific
60
Q

Mores

A

strongly held norms, moral, ethical connotations

-severe sanctions (prison, ridicule)

61
Q

Taboos

A

strong mores, extremely offensive

-punishable by group + supernatural

62
Q

Subculture

A

a set of distinctive values, norms, and practices within larger culture

63
Q

High Culture

A
  • upper/middle class
  • classical music, opera, ballet
  • used to exclude subordinate
  • learn through uni, deny access to lower class from jobs
64
Q

Culture: Functionalist Perspective

A
  • helps ppl meet needs:
    1. biological: food, procreation
    2. instrumental: law, education
    3. integrative: religion, art
  • pop culture unify ppl
  • can promote against values such as violence, crime
65
Q

Culture: Conflict Perspective

A
  • norms+values create+ sustain privilege + social inequalities
  • pop culture for capitalist economy
  • promotes consumption of commodities
  • ideas used by ruling class to control lower class
  • link negative stereotypes
66
Q

Ideology

A

integrated system of ideas

67
Q

Symbolic Capital

A

rep for competence, respectability, honourability

68
Q

Culture: Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

A
  • negotiate social realities
  • reinterpret (values, norms) in each soc situation
  • controlled by culture (money)
  • relativize everything with $
  • highlights how ppl maintain/change culture through interaction
69
Q

Culture: Post-Modern Perspective

A
  • eurocentric (euro culture is universal culture)
  • social life simulates reality through media
  • hyper-reality (simulation more real than thing itself)
  • experience sub of appearance of power over lack of real power (rides)
  • should deconstruct beliefs + theories
70
Q

Socialization

A

lifelong process by which people

  • Learn their culture (norms, values, roles)
  • Become aware of themselves as they interact with others (ppl are reactive to us)
  • Unleash one’s potential(becoming fully human)
71
Q

formation of the self

A
  • individual identity that allows us to understand who we are and to differentiate ourselves
  • Formation begins in childhood and continues in adolescence
  • rapid change in adolescence then slows pace in adulthood
72
Q

Theories about self

A

• Freud – only social interaction allows the
self to emerge
• Cooley – Looking-glass self: how we see ourselves reflects how we think others see us
• Mead – I (individual impulses, reflects on Me, self as subject) and Me (generalized other, self as
object, reflect upon)
• Goffman – Multiple Selves
-fluidity of self
-selves in different context

73
Q

Gender socialization

A

process of learning to become feminine and masculine according to expectations current of society

  • sociological factors help explain differences in sense of self that boys and girls develop
  • boys are more difficult to raise when it comes to discipline, physical safety, and school.
  • Girls are most difficult when it comes to self esteem issues and communication at a later age
74
Q

Agents of Socialization

A

Families
Schools
Peer Groups
Mass Media

75
Q

Agents of Socialization: Families

A

Most important agent of primary socialization

76
Q

Agents of Socialization: School

A

responsible for secondary socialization

77
Q

Agents of Socialization: Peer Groups

A
  • not necessarily friends but about same age and of similar status
  • help develop independent identity
  • influential over lifestyle issues (appearance, social activities, and dating)
  • From middle childhood through adolescence, often dominant socializing agent
78
Q

Agents of Socialization: Mass Media

A

-Internet allowing self-socialization: choosing socialization influences

79
Q

Primary Socialization

A

process of mastering basic skills required to function in society during childhood

80
Q

Secondary Socialization

A

socialization outside the family after

childhood

81
Q

Latent Function

A
  • hidden curriculum that teaches students what will be expected of them in society (sharing, respect, discipline)
  • helps sustain overall structure of society, with its privileges and disadvantages
82
Q

Status

A
  • recognized social position an individual can occupy (parent)
  • status set: all statuses occupies at given time
83
Q

Resocialization and Total institutions

A
  • Takes place when powerful socializing agents deliberately cause rapid change in ppl’s values, roles, self-conception, sometimes against their will
  • Can occur in total institutions: people are isolated from larger society and under strict control and constant supervision , not easy to leave (military, convent, prisons, boarding schools, and psychiatric hospitals)
  • reboot of values, role, self
84
Q

Flexible Self

A
  • Factors contributing to growing flexibility of the self are:
  • Globalization
  • Growing ability to fashion new bodies from old
  • Internet, access to information, building a ‘profile’
85
Q

Social Interaction

A

-process by which people act toward or
respond to other people and is the foundation for all relationships and groups in society
-structured around statuses, roles, and norms
-structure face to face interaction

86
Q

Roles

A
  • performed (caregiver, educate)
  • behavioural expectations associated with status
  • role expectation: societal expectation of how role should be played
  • role ambiguity: unclear expectations
87
Q

Prescriptive Norms

A

Suggest what a person is expected to do while performing a particular role

88
Q

Proscriptive Norms

A

Suggest what a person is expected not to do while performing a particular role

89
Q

Norms

A
  • established rules of behavior or standards of conduct
  • exert constraining pressure
  • NOT universal and often change over time
90
Q

Social institutions

A

set of organized beliefs and rules that establish how a society will strive to meet its social needs

  1. Replacing members
  2. Teaching new members
  3. Producing, distributing, and consuming goods and services
  4. Preserving order
  5. Providing and maintaining a sense of purpose
91
Q

Exchange theory

A
  • social interaction involves trade in attention and other valued resources
  • give-and-take of valued resources, such as attention, pleasure, approval, prestige, information, and money
92
Q

Rational choice theory

A

Focuses on way interacting people weigh benefits and costs of interaction
-try to maximize benefits and minimize costs

93
Q

Social Interaction: Conflict Theory

A
  • statuses often are hierarchically arranged with people on top enjoying more power than those on bottom
  • degree of inequality strongly affects social interaction
94
Q

Social Interaction: Symbolic Interactionism

A
  • ppl are active, creative, self-reflective
  • understand meaning based on context
  • not all people attach same meaning
  • always interpreting meaning
95
Q

Ethnomethodology

A

study of methods that ppl use unconsciously to make sense of what others do + say

  • interaction could not occur without shared norms and understandings (Hi how are you?)
  • requires agreement between actors about what is normal/expected
96
Q

Dramaturgical Analysis

A

interaction as a play where ppl present themselves so they appear in best light

  • ensemble of roles pp play in various social contexts
  • front stage (public) + backstage
  • impression management: make good impression
  • face saving behaviour: rescue performance
97
Q

Emotions

A

-learn from culture what emotion and when emotion is appropriate

98
Q

Emotion Management

A

obeying “feeling rules”, responding appropriately

99
Q

Emotion Labour

A

emotion management part of jobs (flight attendant, teacher)

100
Q

Adult Socialization

A
  • take on new statuses, social identities
  • can choose roles
  • learn how statuses best performed
  • marriage, parenting
101
Q

Ascribed vs. Achieved Status

A
  • Ascribed: given at birth (ethnicity, age)
    • influences achieved
  • Achieved: assume voluntarily (occupation)
102
Q

Master Status

A

most important status (poor/rich)

influences self-worth

103
Q

Status Symbols

A

material sign informing ppl of their status (cars, luxury)

104
Q

Role Exit

A

disengage from social roles central to identity

  1. doubt
  2. search for alternatives
  3. make final action
  4. creation of new identity
105
Q

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

A

false belief produces behaviour that makes it true (believing they are good - not studying)

106
Q

Social groups

A

two or more people who interact frequently with
one another and share a sense of
belonging
-people who identify with one another, and
adhere to defined norms, roles, or statuses

107
Q

Primary groups

A
  • norms, roles, and statuses are agreed upon but not put in writing
  • strong emotional ties, over long period, and involves wide range of activities
  • knowing one another well (family)
108
Q

Secondary groups

A
  • larger and more impersonal
  • social interaction in narrow range of activities, shorter period of time, weaker emotional ties (Sociology class)
  • lose membership=lose interaction
109
Q

In-group vs. Out-group

A

In-group members: Those who belong to a group
Out-group members: Those who are excluded
-In-group members create characteristics needed for membership, separating themselves from out-group(athletic ability, academic talent, physical attractiveness)
-keep out-group from crossing the line
-legitimate vs. illegitimate (qualifications vs. discrimination)

110
Q

Network

A

web of social relationships that link person with others and, through them, with more ppl those people know
-Patterns of exchange determine boundaries
-exchange resources(info) more frequently with one
another than with nonmembers
-may be formal (defined in writing), but are
more often informal (defined only in practice)

111
Q

Organizations

A

groups pursuing tasks with specific purpose

  • have organizational rules, conditions written
  • Individuals have different ‘roles’ to play
  • bigger=roles more specific activities
  • specialized according to the tasks they perform, recruited according to skills and attributes
112
Q

Utilitarian organizations

A

pays people for their efforts + time(business, government)

113
Q

Normative organizations

A

to pursue some goal they think is morally worthwhile (voluntary, community service)

114
Q

NGOs: Non-for-profit organizations

A

operates independently from government, advocates for social aim (lobbying)

115
Q

Coercive organizations

A

involuntary memberships

  • forms of punishment (prisons)/treatment (psychiatric hospitals)
  • security measures, overlap to totalitarian
116
Q

Bureaucracy

A
  • Large, impersonal organization
  • clearly defined positions hierarchically arranged
  • permanent, salaried staff of qualified experts
  • written goals, rules, and procedures
  • common + efficient
117
Q

Characteristics of bureaucracies

A
  1. Division of Labor: split task
  2. Hierarchy of Authority
  3. Rules and Regulations: bigger=more rules
  4. Qualification-Based Employment: based on what you can do
  5. Impersonality: about working together toward task
118
Q

Drawbacks of bureaucracies

A
  1. Inefficiency and Rigidity: more concerned with procedure than getting job done correctly
  2. Resistance to Change: hierarchy creates barriers
  3. Perpetuation of Gender, Class and Race Inequalities: provide different paths for different categories of workers
    Iron law of Oligarchy – tendency to become ruled by the few: handful make crucial decision
119
Q

Changing Organizations

A
  • interested in whole person: disposition, personality
  • Interest in ‘emotional intelligence’
  • monitoring employees: finding more about person
  • some freedom of moving in and out of organizations: flexibility between responsibility
120
Q

Mcdonaldization

A
  1. Efficiency – fastest time possible (assembly line)
  2. Calculability – quantitative aspects of products sold (portion size, cost) and service offered
  3. Predictability – product will be the same over time and in all locales
  4. Control – standardized + uniformed employees, non human tech
  5. Irrationalities of Rationality: dehumanizing/informality+spontaneity gradually replaced by efficiency administered formal rules+procedures)
    - high turnover rate
121
Q

Network organization

A
  • likely to dominate future organizations
  • Fluid, agile, quickly adapt to new circumstances, no central control and authority
  • Technology allows efficiency and communication
  • more ppl shape direction
122
Q

Network Enterprise

A

less dependent on 1 person

-more ppl have say

123
Q

Social groups shaping our actions

A
  1. implicit (norms, values, socialization) -> groupthink, solidarity, conformity
  2. explicit (obedience to authority)
124
Q

Groups shaping our actions and identities

A

-through socialization and social interaction
-shape our sense of self, belonging, identity
-define ourselves by the groups we used to belong to, we belong to now and those we would like to
belong to in the future

125
Q

Aggregates vs. Categories

A

Aggregates: same place, same time
Category: may have never met, share similar characteristics

126
Q

Formal Organizations

A

-achieve specific goals in most efficient manner (uni, military)

127
Q

Reference Groups

A

strongly influence person’s behaviour + attitudes

-evaluate ourselves by group standards

128
Q

Group: Functionalist Perspective

A

-meet instrumental(cooperation) + expressive needs(emotional needs)

129
Q

Group: Conflict Perspective

A

-power relationships where needs of members not equally served

130
Q

Group: Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

A
  • how size influences kind of interaction

- more ppl=more possible # of interactions

131
Q

Group: Post-Modern Perspective

A

-superficiality + shallow social relationships

132
Q

Group Size: Dyads, Triads

A
  • small group=personal+intense interactions
  • Dyad: 2 ppl, intense bond, need both participation
  • Triad: 3 ppl, group can still function without 1

SOC100 (20 decks)

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