Research Methods

Question 1

The Research Cycle

Answer 1

1.Figure out what matters to you (values, context, state of field)
2.Formulate a testable theory (tentative explanation of a phenomenon that usually specifies cause[s] + effect[s])
•Choices governed by social context/funding

Question 2

The Research Cycle

Answer 2

3. Review existing literature for inspiration + prevent duplication, we want to add to knowledge
4. Select method(s) appropriate for the problem
5. Collect data

Question 3

The Research Cycle

Answer 3

6. Treat subjects ethically to ensure no harm, anonymity, etc.
   •aware of risks, respect of privacy
7. Analyze data

Question 4

The Research Cycle

Answer 4

8. Report results so they can be evaluated, rejected/accepted, applied
   Conference, journal, book: we can’t contribute if we keep knowledge a secret – science is a social institution
   •rule is attack: everybody else is obliged to systematically find flaws in research
   •encourages researchers to do better next time
   •add to stock of knowledge + formulate policies
   •give others opportunity to criticize

Question 5

Operationalization

Answer 5

establishing criteria for assigning numerical value or qualitative values to variables

Question 6

reliable

Answer 6

consistent results

Question 7

valid

Answer 7

measurement procedure measures what it is supposed to

Question 8

Causality

Answer 8

measurement of causes and their effects

Question 9

generalizable

Answer 9

research findings hold in many contexts

Question 10

Validity, reliability, and generalizability may be explained by drawing an analogy between measuring a variable and firing at a bull’s-eye

Answer 10

case 1, measures far apart (not reliable) + far from bull’s-eye (not valid)
case 2, shots close (reliable) but far from bull’s-eye (not valid)

Question 11

Validity, reliability, and generalizability may be explained by drawing an analogy between measuring a variable and firing at a bull’s-eye

Answer 11

case 3, shots close to bull’s-eye (valid) + close to each other (reliable).
case 4, use a second target - shots close to each other (reliable) + close to the bull’s-eye (valid) again.
Because measures were valid + reliable in both cases 3 + 4, we conclude that our results are generalizable.

Question 12

participant observation

Answer 12

observe social setting from outsider’s POV + take part in activities of subjects
•analytically, systematically, from the outside observe
•participation only: not able to observe objectively, lack of outside information
•only by regularly stepping apart do we get the chance to see what subjects are blind to
•only outside: we don’t understand the culture or why, we don’t know what it means
•we have to move back and forth

Question 13

Participant Observation: Advantages

Answer 13

Promotes understanding meaning of subjects’ actions
Good for exploratory research (theory construction)
•Often engaged in process of theory construction – mechanism for causal theory

Question 14

Participant Observation: Disadvantages

Answer 14

High potential for reactivity
Bad for theory testing (establishing cause and effect)
Low reliability: subjective – might be different if someone else did it
•Researchers right there – subjects acting in way to please researchers
•Gotta gain confidence + trust – important if subjects are very different from you

Question 15

experiment

Answer 15

carefully controlled artificial situation that allows researchers to isolate hypothesized cause + measure effect precisely
•Remove some of the problems from observation

Question 16

Experiments

Answer 16

1 Recruit subjects: need ppl, advertise
2 Randomly assign them: randomization removes bias
3 Experimental group: group exposed to independent variable (hypothesized cause)
3 Control group: group not exposed

Question 17

Experiments

Answer 17

4 Measure dependent variable in experimental + control
5 Expose experimental group to independent variable
5 Do not expose control group to independent variable
6 Re-measure dependent variable in experimental + control to determine the degree to which it has changed
•if any change there can only be 1 cause
•we have to do this over and over again to ensure both groups are alike

Question 18

Experiments: Advantages

Answer 18

Very high reliability
Very good for theory testing (establishing cause and effect)
•Measure things precisely consistently

Question 19

Experiments: Disadvantages

Answer 19

Do not promote understanding of motives + culture
Not useful for exploratory research (theory construction)
Low validity (in sociology): not real life setting

Question 20

Surveys

Answer 20

form containing questions mailed to the respondent + returned to the researcher through the mail system, not very effective
face-to-face interview survey: questions presented by the interviewer during a meeting

Question 21

Surveys

Answer 21

telephone survey: questions presented by the interviewer over the phone, frequent
•Self select – must be highly motivated, not representative

Question 22

Surveys

Answer 22

closed-ended question provides respondent with a list of permitted answers
open-ended question allows respondents to answer in their own words.

Question 23

Sampling

Answer 23

sample is part of a group.

voluntary response sample: group of people who chose themselves in response to a general appeal – not scientific

Question 24

Sampling

Answer 24

convenience sample: ppl easiest to reach – results not reliable, don’t like this
representative sample: group chosen randomly so characteristics closely match those of the population of interest

Question 25

Sampling

Answer 25

sampling frame: list of all ppl in the pop of interest.
randomizing method: way of ensuring every person in sampling frame has chance of being selected
•1000-1500 – gonna be pretty accurate
•because of unknown biases/bad luck – it might be outside standard error

Question 26

Sampling Error

Answer 26

•conventionally tolerate 5% chance that sample is different than population
Support for party A is 48%. Support for party B is 50%
measures are accurate ± 2.5%, with margin of error measures fall within overlapping margins of error, conclude measured diff in pop not statistically significant

Question 27

Sampling Error

Answer 27

48%-55% measures fall outside margins of error, conclude measured diff in pop statistically significant.
•probability sampling permit us to generalize within known margins of error

Question 28

Surveys: Advantages

Answer 28

Good reliability + validity
Good for theory testing (ease of quantification)
•because it can be repeated
•allow us to see relationship between causes + effects

Question 29

Surveys: Disadvantages

Answer 29

Not great for exploratory research

Question 30

contingency table

Answer 30

cross-classification of cases by at least two variables that allows you to see how/if variables are associated

Question 31

contingency table

Answer 31

Percent of cases in each column that fall into a category of each row variable
Independent variable in column
Dependent variable: rows

Question 32

contingency table

Answer 32

total frequency (n): Number of cases in each column
total percent: Percent of cases in each column
percentage difference: Measure of strength of association
•bigger the percentage, the stronger the association
•no difference means there is no effect
•strength of association determined by percentage difference

Question 33

Testing an Association for Spuriousness (= “phoniness”)

Answer 33

(1) believe there is a causal relationship between TV viewing and aggressiveness
(2) By controlling for gender we can see whether gender has created a spurious association between TV viewing and aggressiveness

Question 34

Testing an Association for Spuriousness (= “phoniness”)

Answer 34

•engaging in statistical manipulation to eliminate irrelevant variable
•analysis of survey data looking at relationship between hypothesized causes + effects through statistical
control factors: explain original association
•allows you to conclude original association was spurious it was actually the control factors

Question 35

Positive + Negative Freedom

Answer 35

• Negative freedom: freedom from constraints that would otherwise prevent me from doing as I wish
• Positive freedom: capacity to act rationally, involves taking control of one’s life and realizing one’s best interest

Question 36

Conclusions

Answer 36

• Peace in the Middle East
• Decreasing social solidarity = lower rate of altruistic suicide
• higher standards of security + well-being to most vulnerable - natural disasters
• More negative + positive freedom
• State intervention
• engaging + higher-quality schools, widely accessible childcare programs to inner-city

Question 37

Spuriousness - Experimental

Answer 37

remove effect of extraneous variables by randomizing allocation of subjects to experimental + control groups + repeating experiments many times

Question 38

Spuriousness - Nonexperimental

Answer 38

remove the effect of extraneous variables by controlling for variables that we expect may be irrelevant