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anatomy & physiology > test 1 > Flashcards

test 1 Flashcards

1
Q

homeostasis

A

constant stable internal environment distinct from the changing external environment

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2
Q

how is homeostasis achieved?

A

regulatory mechanisms

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3
Q

disease

A

failure to maintain homeostasis

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4
Q

what types of regulatory mechanisms are possible?

A

positive feedback (amplifies stimulus); negative feedback (corrects the stimulus)

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5
Q

stimulus (input)

A

change of a variable in the environment

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6
Q

response (output)

A

result of the regulatory system

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7
Q

regulatory mechanism

A

response to stimulus

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8
Q

negative feedback mechanism

A

response corrects a stimulus

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9
Q

what are the components of negative feedback?

A

stimulus, receptor, control centre, effector, response

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10
Q

receptor

A

detects change

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11
Q

control centre (integration centre)

A

processes information, makes a descision, sends a command

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12
Q

effector

A

muscle or gland that performs the response

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13
Q

thermoregulation - negative feedback

A

stimulus: rise in temperature/drop in temperature
- receptors in skin detect change
- brain makes decision
- sweat glands and blood vessels dilate (sweat)/muscles contract and blood vessels constrict
reponse: decrease in body temp and maintain homeostasis or increase in body temp and maintain homeostasis

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14
Q

glucose - negative feedback

A

stimulus: low blood glucose
- alpha cells in pancreas act as receptor and control centre and secrete glucagon
- effectors are found in the liver
response depends on glucagon or insulin
- glucagon = break down glycogen and form glucose from proteins which are released into blood cells
- insulin = removes glucose from blood by increasing use by cells (ATP formation+ anabolic reactions + store glucose)

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15
Q

positive feedback mechanism

A

amplifies the stimulus, once started they must go to completion

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16
Q

examples of positive feedback

A

blood clotting, labour

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17
Q

what are the 2 types of nervous tissue cells

A

neuron and neuroglia

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18
Q

neuron function

A

receive and transmit electrical impulses (action potential)

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19
Q

what are the components of the cell body of the axon?

A

nucleus, cytoplasm, nissl bodies, neurofibrils, neurotubules, dendrites

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20
Q

nucleus (neuron)

A

contains DNA, sometimes nucleolus

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21
Q

cytoplasm (neuron)

A

occupies cellular space

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22
Q

nissl bodies

A

clusters of RER responsible for manufacturing proteins

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23
Q

neurofibrils

A

assembled neurofilaments, structural proteins

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24
Q

neurotubules

A

responsible for cellular transport, also structural proteins

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25
Q

dendrites

A

branch off cell body, highly specialized structures, processes that receive info

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26
Q

axon components

A

axon hillock, axoplasm, axon collateral, telodendria, neurotransmitters, myelin sheath, nodes of ranvier

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27
Q

axon

A

where the nerve impulse propagates down to be transmitted

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28
Q

axon hillock

A

where the cell body tapers to become the axon, integration area

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29
Q

axoplasm

A

cytoplasm in the axon

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30
Q

axon collateral

A

branch off the axon

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31
Q

telodendria

A

branches at the distal end of the axon

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32
Q

neurotransmitters

A

chemical signals released from the synaptic terminal

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33
Q

myelin sheath

A

multiple membrane layer that wraps around the axon; protects and insulates, increases speed of NT

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34
Q

node of ranvier

A

gaps along the myelin sheath, where collaterals arise and nerve impulse is transmitted
- PNS: composed of Schwann cells
- CNS: oligodendrocyte

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35
Q

saltatory conduction

A

jumping conduction

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36
Q

function of neuroglia

A

supports the neuron

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37
Q

how many neuroglias does the neuron need to function

A

about 10

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38
Q

components of neuroglia (CNS)

A

astrocyte, oligodendrocyte, microglia, ependymal

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39
Q

astrocyte

A

provides 3D framework & controls environment (forms BBB)

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40
Q

oligodendrocyte

A

myelin sheath

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41
Q

microglia

A

immune function

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42
Q

ependymal

A

epithelial-like cells that line fluid-filled canals and cavities, produces cerebrospinal fluid

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43
Q

components of neuroglia (PNS)

A

satellite cells, schwann cells

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44
Q

satellite cells

A

astrocytes of PNS

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45
Q

schwann cells

A

myelin sheath

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46
Q

3 structural neuron classifications

A

unipolar, bipolar, multipolar

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47
Q

unipolar

A

one processs, exclusive to sensory neurons

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48
Q

bipolar

A

one axon, one dendrite; only found in eye and ear

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49
Q

multipolar

A

most neurons are multipolar

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50
Q

3 functional neuron classifications

A

sensory, inter, motor

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51
Q

sensory neurons

A

deliver information

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52
Q

interneuron

A

only in CNS, make decision

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53
Q

motor neurons

A

sends information to muscles

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54
Q

membrane potential

A

unequal charge distribution across the membrane

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55
Q

where does nerve impulse start?

A

axon hillock

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56
Q

what contributes to formation of membrane potential?

A

membranes are barriers to charges, high potassium in cell, high sodium outside cell, negatively charged proteins inside cell

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57
Q

which cells have ion gated channels?

A

nerve and muscle cells

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58
Q

resting membrane potential

A

polarized, -70mV

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59
Q

opening of sodium channels

A

depolarized, -55mV

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60
Q

opening of potassium ion channels

A

hyperpolarized (graded potential); repolarized (action potential), +30mV

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61
Q

sodium potassium ATP-ase

A

pumps 3 sodium out, 2 potassium in, forming membrane potential

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62
Q

chemically gated ion channels

A

opened or closed by neurotransmitter or hormone

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63
Q

voltage gated channels

A

opened or closed by change in membrane potential

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64
Q

depolarization

A

potential moves to threshold, becomes more positive

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65
Q

hyperpolarization

A

moves away from threshold, becomes more negative

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66
Q

repolarization

A

returns to resting state

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67
Q

hyper-repolarization

A

more negative than resting, overshoot

68
Q

threshold

A

depolarization event which triggers opening of sodium voltage gates, threshold occurs at -55mV

69
Q

refractory period

A

membrane cannot response to stimulus while sodium gates are open

70
Q

action potential

A

all or nothing

71
Q

graded potential

A

varies in magnitude, fades over time, can be summated

72
Q

propagation

A

transmission of nerve impulse

73
Q

epsp: excitatory post synaptic potential

A

graded potential depolarization event

74
Q

ipsp: inhibitory post synaptic potential

A

graded potential hyperpolarization event

75
Q

how does nervous system detect changes in environment?

A

opening of gated ion channels creates change in membrane potential

76
Q

steps of action potential:

A

resting membrane (-70mV), depolarization (sodium channels open, -55mV), repolarization (+30mV, sodium channels close and potassium channels open), hyperpolarization (potassium channels close, -70mV)

77
Q

absolute refractory period

A

period in action potential when membrane cannot respond to second stimuli

78
Q

relative refractory period

A

period in action potential when membrane CAN respond to second stimulus if strong enough when threshold is reached

79
Q

what happens when chemically gated potassium channels open?

A

potassium moves out, hyperpolarixation, IPSP

80
Q

what happens when chemically gated sodium channels open?

A

sodium moves in, membrane potential depolarizes, EPSP

81
Q

chemically gated channels

A

found on dendrites and cell body, neurotransmitter driven, open and closes by gates, part of graded potential

82
Q

voltage gated channels

A

part of action potential, open and closes by gates, found along the axon, threshold driven

83
Q

3 functional regions of synapse

A

axon terminal of presynaptic neuron (neurotransmitters in vessicles), synaptic cleft (space across which NT is diffused), motor end plate (receptors for NT)

84
Q

steps at the synapse

A

1- action potential arrives
2- voltage calcium gates open and calcium moves in
3- calcium triggers release of neurotransmitters from vessicles in axon terminal of presynaptic neuron
4- neurotransmitters bind to receptors on motor end plate (post synaptic neuron) and open chemically gated ion channels, producing EPSP or IPSP
5- EPSP may or may not create action potential in post synaptic neuron

85
Q

three types of muscle tissue

A

skeletal, smooth, cardiac

86
Q

skeletal muscle function

A

produce movements of skeleton, maintain posture, stabilize joints, generate heat, nutrient reserve

87
Q

characteristics of skeletal muscle

A

excitable, extensible, contractible, elasticity

88
Q

muscle (organ) component

A

muscle, connective, nerve, tissue

89
Q

how are muscles are attached to bones?

A

epimysium fuses to the periosteum

90
Q

how are muscles indirectly attached to bones?

A

connective tissue extending beyond bone forming a tendon or aponeurosis

91
Q

sarcolemma

A

cell membrane

92
Q

t tubules

A

enfoldings of sarcolemma which encircle sarcolemma

93
Q

myofibrils

A

bundles of 4-20 myofilaments

94
Q

myofilaments

A

actin & myosin

95
Q

sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

wraps each myofibril (SER)

96
Q

sarcoplasm

A

cytoplasm

97
Q

cisternae

A

sac-like structures of SER, stores calcium, encircled by t tubules

98
Q

triad

A

t tubules + 2 cisternae junction site, where electrical signal transfers

99
Q

glycosomes

A

granules of glycogen

100
Q

fasciles

A

bundle of myofibrils

101
Q

sarcomere

A

contractile unit of muscle fiber, resting length of 2um, consists of alternating light and dark bands, reflects the ordered arrangement of myofilaments

102
Q

A band

A

dark band, myosin (think filaments) plus overlapping actin

103
Q

I band

A

light band; actin (thin filaments)

104
Q

Z line

A

holds actin in place

105
Q

M line

A

holds myosin in place

106
Q

H zone

A

area of myosin with no overlap

107
Q

myosin

A

bundles of rod-like tails with globular heads; contains cross-bridges/form cross-bridges with actin

108
Q

titin

A

elastic filaments, return filaments to resting length

109
Q

actin

A

provides binding sites for cross bridge formation

110
Q

troponin

A

binds calcium shifting tropomyosin

111
Q

tropomyosin

A

covers actin binding sites at rest

112
Q

atp

A

activates the myosin

113
Q

calcium

A

binds to troponin, stored in cisternae, released with electrical signal, pumped back into cisternae

114
Q

muscle contraction steps

A

1- calcium is released into cytoplasm, trigerred by electrical impulse that travels down t tubules into cisternae. calcium binds to tropomyosin exposing actin binding sites
2- myosin heads are activated (hydrolyze atp) and bind to exposed actin sites, forming a crossbridge
3- myosin head changes shape (bend/flexes) when binded. as shape changes, myosin pulls actin with it. adp + p falls out of myosin head. POWER STROKE
4- atp binds to myosin head breaking cross bridges
5- cycle repeats as long as atp and calcium are available

115
Q

rigormortis

A

occurs after death, cross bridges cannot detach because no more atp

116
Q

muscle contraction (synapse)

A

1- electrical signal travels down the axon of neuron and reaches axon terminal
2- axon terminal forms a synapse with the muscle cell
3- signal is transferred, calcium gates open trigerring release of NT - acetyl choline (Ach)
4- NT binds to motor end plate
5- NT binding triggers opening of sodium channels, formation of electrical signal in muscle cell
6- acetyl choline esterase removes Ach from synapse

117
Q

signal in muscle fiber

A

1- electrical impulse travels down sarcolemma
2- signal travels down t-tubules
3- signal opens calcium channels at triads and calcium moves into sarcoplasm
4- calcium binds to troponin, results in shape change pulling tropomyosin off binding sites
5- cross bridges form

118
Q

tension in muscle

A

pull on tendon that overcomes resistance

119
Q

wave summation

A

occurs when 2nd stimulus occurs before relaxation is complete (ex: muscle twitch)

120
Q

stimulus-contraction cycle

A

latent period - 2ms: ca release
contraction phase - 15ms: increased tension (cross bridge formation)
relaxation phase - 225 ms: ca levels drop, tension returns to resting state

121
Q

incomplete tetanus

A

quivering contraction

122
Q

complete tetanus

A

sustained max

123
Q

motor unit

A

group of muscle fibers controlled by one neuron (fine motor: 4-6 units, gross motor: 1000-2000 units)

124
Q

epithelial tissue

A

function: cover
structure: thin (diffusion), smooth (friction), tight fitting cells with no spaces (creates boundary with environment; protection), many layers (wear and tear)
location: body surface, lining cavities

125
Q

endocrine glands

A

secrete cell products into interstitial fluid; lack ducts

126
Q

exocrine glands

A

cells products secreted onto cell surface via a duct

127
Q

muscle tissue

A

function: contraction
structure: striated actin/myosin bands, parallel, elongated cells, highly cellular and vascularized

128
Q

connective tissue

A

function: connect, support, protect (bind, wrap, cushion, insulate)
structure: few cells (lots of space), ground substance, extracellular fibers

129
Q

matrix

A

ground substance and extracellular fibers, dominates

130
Q

ground substance

A

material between cells, interstitial fluid and cell producits. determines if ECF are fluid/gel/solid

131
Q

extracellular fibers

A

provide support (collagen: strength, elastic: stretch/recoil, reticular: net of collagen fibers)

132
Q

characteristics of connective tissue

A

origin in embryo, matrix dominates, properties determined by matrix, vascularization varies, 3 structural elements

133
Q

function of neural tissue

A

communication and regulation

134
Q

cancer

A

loss of a cell’s ability to be a tissue
- loss of anchorage
- cells migrate and divide
- loss of specialization
- immortal and divide infinitely (normal cells can only divide 20-30 times)
- result of an accumulation of gene errors

135
Q

tissue cells

A

specialized, anchored, connected by junction proteins, highly regulated cell cycle, act as a unit

136
Q

membranes

A

sheets of epithelial and connective tissues which form protective layers

137
Q

functions of nervous system

A

1- sense: detect change
2- integration: process information, make decision, send command
3- responds: effector organs respond

138
Q

CNS

A

control centre, brain and spinal cord

139
Q

PNS

A

provides link to and from outside; afferent and efferent paths, receptors, nerves, ganglia

140
Q

gray matter

A

group of cell bodies; nucleus/centre, cortex

141
Q

white matter

A

axon collection (nerves, tracts, columns)

142
Q

sensory/afferent pathway

A

PNS to CNS

143
Q

motor/efferent pathway

A

CNS to PNS

144
Q

nucleus/centre (nerve)

A

cell bodies with common functions

145
Q

cortex

A

outer layer of gray matter

146
Q

ganglion

A

clusters of cell bodies in PNS

147
Q

protection of neural tissues

A

bones (vertebrae, skull), meninges, CSF, glial cells, cellular barriers (BBB)

148
Q

meninges function

A

protective wrappings, carry nerves and blood vessels, form attachment sites, forms spaces holding fats and fluids

149
Q

dura mater

A

tough outer layer of meninges

150
Q

arachnoid mater

A

middle layer with extending fibers

151
Q

pia mater

A

innermost layer adhering to nervous tissue

152
Q

subarachnoid

A

holds CSF

153
Q

epidural

A

stores fat in spinal cord

154
Q

subdural

A

small amount of fluid adhering dura & arachnoid through surface tension

155
Q

dural spaces

A

sinuses, hold veins in the brain

156
Q

glial cells

A

support neuron and form cellular barriers

157
Q

blood brain barrier

A

foot processes of astrocytes and blood vessel wall. 2 layers thick. filters nutrients and ions through.

158
Q

CSF function

A

“sink”, maintains environment, cushions, brain floats in CSF, provides nutrients to cells in path of circulation.

159
Q

CSF structure

A

formed in blood by chloroid plexus - 2 cell layer that filters and adjusts blood plasma

160
Q

arachnoid villi

A

one way valves in SAS that return CNS to vlood via dural sinuses

161
Q

circulation of CSF

A

1- choroid plexus
2- ventricles (lateral, third, fourth) SAS
3- arachnoid villi
4- dural sinuses

162
Q

reflex

A

rapid, involuntary response

163
Q

reflex characteristics

A

predictable, rapid, maintains homeostasis, involuntary, innate or learned

164
Q

autonomic reflex

A

smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, glands

165
Q

somatix reflex

A

skeletal muscles

166
Q

somatix reflex

A

skeletal muscles

167
Q

reflex arc

A

receptor, afferent path, control centre, efferent path, effector

anatomy & physiology (9 decks)

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