Term 2 - Geology Flashcards

Describe the topics detailed in this Term.

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1
Q

Front

A

Back

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2
Q

Etymology of Geology?

A

Greek:
Geo - Earth
Ology - The Study Of
Geology - The Study of the Earth

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3
Q

What are the layers of the Earth?

A

The inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust.

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4
Q

Characteristics of the inner core?

A

Hot - As hot as the surface of the Sun
Solid - Composed of iron and nickel

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5
Q

What is the Mantle?

A

Largest layer

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6
Q

Characteristics of the mantle?

A

It is hot, but not as hot as the core.
It is mostly solid and a bit liquid, Composed of various materials

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7
Q

Temperature of the Crust?

A

Cool

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8
Q

Characteristics of the crust?

A

Cool

Life

Solid; Composed of rocks; various materials</div>

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9
Q

Characteristics of the outer core?

A

Hot, but not as hot as the inner core
Liquid - Composed of iron and nickel</div>

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10
Q

What are rocks made of?

A

Minerals

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11
Q

What are minerals made of?

A

Chemicals

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12
Q

What is a characteristic of minerals?

A

They are the same substance throughout.

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13
Q

What are crystals?

A

Minerals that had the opportunity to grow into natural shape.

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14
Q

Why are there different types of rock?

A

Because of the way they are formed.

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15
Q

What is Magma?

A

Deep in the ground is molten rock called magma.Sometimes, magma bursts through the surface causing volcanic eruptions.

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16
Q

How do Igneous Rocks form?

A

When magma cools and solidifies.

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17
Q

What is Intrusive and Extrusive Igneous Rocks?

A

Intrusive: Igneous Rocks that form through the cooling of magma above the Earth’s surface.
Extrusive Igneous Rocks that form through the cooling of magma below the Earth’s surface.

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18
Q

How do Extrusive Igneous Rocks form?

A

Magma cools above surface.

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19
Q

What are the crystals like in extrusive Igneous Rocks? Why?

A

Very small; may be hard to see. Also, has fine grains.
Caused by quick cooling.

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20
Q

What is another characteristic of Extrusive Igneous Rocks?

A

Usually contains large spaces. Caused by gas bubbles. Makes rock look rough and bubbly.

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21
Q

Examples of Extrusive Igneous Rock?

A

Basalt, Obsidian, Pumice

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22
Q

How do Intrusive Igneous Rocks form?

A

When magma cools below the surface.

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23
Q

What are the crystals like in Intrusive Igneous Rocks?

A

Large and interlocking

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24
Q

Examples of Intrusive Igneous Rocks?

A

Granite, Durite, Diorite

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25
Q

What are some characteristics of Igneous Rocks? Why?

A

They are strong and hard.
Because minerals and crystals contained are hard and strong.

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26
Q

What are a characteristic of Igneous Rock Crystal?

A

Igneous rocks contain interlocking crystals which have grown into each other and lock together and are arranged randomly.

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27
Q

What do the crystals in Igneous Rocks look like?

A

A jigsaw; because the crystals are grown into eachother

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28
Q

What is Erosion?

A

The removal of soil and rock by natural processes such as water flow or wind.

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29
Q

What is Weathering?

A

The deterioration of rocks, soils, and minerals through water, atmospheric gases (wind), and sunlight.

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30
Q

What is Sediment?

A

Material that is broke down by the processes of weathering and erosion.

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31
Q

What is Deposition?

A

Process in which material is laid down or dropped to add to a landform or land mass.

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32
Q

What does Erosion to Igneous rocks?

A

They turn to Sediment.

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33
Q

What does Deposition do to Sediment?

A

It turns to sedimentary rock.

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34
Q

What does erosion to the sedimentary rocks?

A

It turns to Sediment.

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35
Q

What does Heat and Pressure do to Sedimentary Rocks?

A

They turn to metamorphic rock.

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36
Q

What does erosion do to Metamorphic rock?

A

They turn to Sediment.

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37
Q

What does Melting do to Metamorphic rock?

A

They turn to Magma and Lava.

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38
Q

What does Melting do to Sedimentary rock?

A

They turn to Lava and Magma.

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39
Q

What does Melting do to Igneous Rocks?

A

They turn to Magma and Lava.

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40
Q

What does the Solidifcation of Volcanic Activity do to Magma and Lava?

A

They turn to Igneous Rocks.

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41
Q

What does Heat and Pressure do to Igneous rocks?

A

They turn to Metamorphic rocks.

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42
Q

What are Sedimentary rocks?

A

Rocks made of sediments.

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43
Q

What are the three types of Sedimentary Rock?

A

Clastic, Organic, Chemical

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44
Q

What determines the type of Sedimentary Rock?

A

The way they are formed;

Formed from weathered rock fragments = Clastic

Formed from materials crystallising from solutions = Chemical

Formed from dead animal and plant material = Organic

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45
Q

What is the process of Clastic Sedimentary Rock Formation in Long Form?

A

Weathering creates small rock fragments which are deposited (sink) in the sea and form a sediment, building up over time.

Dead plants and animals can become trapped within the sediment forming fossils.

Over time, the pressure of layers above compact the sediment together

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46
Q

What can be found in Clastic Sedimentary Rocks?

A

Fossils, formed by dead plant and animals that were trapped in the sediment.

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47
Q

What causes Compaction in Clastic Sedimentary Rocks?

A

Upper layers pushing down the the lower ones.

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48
Q

What are all Clastic Sedimentary Rocks? What is their difference?

A

Sands, grains, and shales.
Difference is in the size of the grains.

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49
Q

What are some examples of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks?

A

Sandstone, shale, breccia, conglomerate

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50
Q

What is the Clastic Sedimentary Rock Formation process in steps?

A
  1. Weathering and Erosion
  2. Transportation
  3. Deposition of eroded materials begin sedimentation
  4. Burial, compaction, lithification
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51
Q

What is Lithification?

A

The process of expelling fluids, compaction, and cementation.

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52
Q

What are the characteristics of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks?

A

Layered,
Not interlocked grains due to cementation
May contain fossils

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53
Q

How are Chemical Sedimentary rocks formed?

A

When materials dissolved in a solution come out of the solution, forms a solid, and sinks.
Involves evaporation and crystallisation.

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54
Q

What is the process of Halite Rock formation?

A
  1. Crystals in water settle to the bottom; Sedimentation
  2. Crystals grow as water evaporates; Evaporation
  3. Water is gone and crystals cement into Halite Rock
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55
Q

What are examples of Chemical Sedimentary Rocks?

A

Halite, limestone, gypsum

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56
Q

What are the characteristics of Chemical Sedimentary Rocks?

A

Most have crystals
Quite soft; distinguishes from hard igneous rocks
No layering

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57
Q

How are Organic Sedimentary Rock formed?

A
  1. Dead plant and animal debris is buried under dirt or water
  2. Is exposed to High pressures and heat, turning the remain sto Organic Sedimentary Rocks.
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58
Q

What are examples of Organic Sedimentary rocks?

A

Coal, chalk

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59
Q

What are the characteristics of Organic Sedimentary Rocks?

A

Can be layered
Mostly soft
May contain fossils

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60
Q

What are the time frames in Geology?

A

Paleozoic
Proterozoic
Archeozoic

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61
Q

What is Paleozoic?

A

225 - 570 myo

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62
Q

What is Proterozoic?

A

570 to 1000 myo

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63
Q

What is Archeozoic?

A

More than 1500 myo

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64
Q

What is a principle of rock age?

A

Deeper you go, older the rocks are

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65
Q

How does Metamorphic Rock form?

A

When existing rock is changed by by high temperatures and pressures, leading to physical and chemical changes.

66
Q

What can Metamorphic Rock form from?

A

Igneous, Sedimentary, and other Metamorphic rocks.

67
Q

What are the different types of Metamorphism?

A

Contact and Regional

68
Q

What is Regional Metamorphism?

A

Tectonic plates moving and colliding on eachother, producing heat and compression of rock.

69
Q

What is Contact Metamorphism?

A

Rocks coming into contact with Magma (heat) as it pushes through the crust (pressure), causing them to change.

70
Q

What are some examples of Metamorphic Rock?

A

Marble
Gneiss
Schist
Slate
Phyllite
Quartzite

71
Q

What are is an example of an Igneous Rock forming Metamorphic Rock?

A

Granite forming Gneiss.

72
Q

What are some examples of Sedimentary Rock forming Metamorphic Rock?

A

Limestone forming Marble.

Shale forming Slate.

Sandstone forming Quartzite.

73
Q

What are some characteristics of Metamorphic Rock?

A

They are sometimes brightly colored.

May contain precious minerals (diamond, ruby, sapphire).

When formed from Great Pressure, may contain bands or flat, leaf-like layers, such as in Gneiss. Sometimes, they may also be zig-zaggy or wavy. Some don’t have any bands.

Often has regular layers of crystal caused by Heat and Pressure.

Usually denser and harder than Sedimentary Rocks.

74
Q

What is the structure of Earth’s crust?

A

Made of different sections called plates.

They vary in size and move in random directions.

The crust is not smooth.

75
Q

What causes the movement of plates?

A

Convection Currents

76
Q

How do Convection Currents move the Earth? Give an analogy.

A

Boiling water in pan;

hot water rise, cold water sink;

cold water at the bottom heats up and then rises;

colder water at the top sinks and gets heated again;

causes a cycle of water;

Convection Currents.

77
Q

How do Convection Currents move Plates? Do not give an analogy.

A

Inner mantle is heated by core;

Moves up as cold mantle sinks;

New cold mantle is heated up and rises;

New cold mantle falls and gets heated after;

Creates a cycle; Convection Currents.

78
Q

Who and when studied plate tectonics? What were they studying specifically?

A

Alfred Wegener, 1910.<br></br><br></br>He was the first to study that the continents might have once been a single landmass.

79
Q

When was Wegener’s theory accepted?

A

Twenty years after his death, geologists realized he was right.

80
Q

What was Wegener’s theory?

A

Over millions of years,<br></br><br></br>Land Masses have moved and changed.<br></br><br></br>Continents and Ocean floors “float” on moving rock plates.

81
Q

What was Wegener’s evidence for his Theory?

A

He had convincing evidence; looked at the origins of different fossils and pieced the evidences together to form 1 landmass.

82
Q

What were the different periods of Earth?

A

Permian 250 mya<br></br>Triassic 200 mya<br></br>Jurassic 145 mya<br></br>Cretaceous 65 mya<br></br>Present Day

83
Q

What was the Permian Period?

A

One landmass: Wegener named it Pangaea

84
Q

What was the Triassic Period?

A

Pangaea split into two land masses: Laurasia and Gondwanaland.

85
Q

What was the Jurassic Period?

A

The continents we know today became visible.

86
Q

How fast do Plates move?

A

1 - 10 centimetres a year; same speed as a fingernail growing

87
Q

In what directions do Plates move in relation to eachother?

A

Close, away, or rub against.

88
Q

What are Plate Boundaries?

A

Where two different plates meet.

89
Q

What occurs in Plate Boundaries?

A

Lots of processes, some of which are dangerous.

90
Q

What are Divergent Plate Boundaries? Where do they usually occur?

A

When two plates move apart.<br></br><br></br>Usually in the Ocean.

91
Q

What is the Process of Divergent Plate Boundaries?

A

Molten Rock, magma, rises up in gap between plates.<br></br><br></br>Creates shield volcanoes.<br></br><br></br>Sometimes Lava reaching above ocean = Large Eruption.<br></br><br></br>Lava cools into an island. Iceland e.g.

92
Q

What happens with Divergent Plate Boundaries on Land? Example?

A

A rift valley is formed.<br></br><br></br>E.g. Hell’s Gate, Kenya

93
Q

What is a smaller effect of Divergent Plate Boundaries?

A

Small Earthquakes

94
Q

What are Convergent Plate Boundaries?

A

When two plates move towards eachother. Is usually an ocean and continental plate.

95
Q

What is the process of Convergent Plate Boundaries?

A

An Oceanic and Contintental Plate collide,<br></br><br></br>Because the ocean is denser than the continent, it is subducted into the mantle and melts.<br></br><br></br>The melted material mixes with the volatile gases, forces the magma to the surface.<br></br><br></br>Leads to the some of the most destructive eruptions.

96
Q

What are 2 examples of the effects of Convergent Plate Boundaries?

A

Mt St Helens formed from Juan de Fuca and NA plate.<br></br><br></br>Italian volcanoes formed from Eurasian and African plates.

97
Q

What is another consequence of Convergent Plate Boundaries?

A

Deadly earthquakes

98
Q

How do Convergent Plate Boundaries create Earthquakes?

A

Convection Currents move plates.<br></br><br></br>Plates move together and are jammed.<br></br><br></br>Pressure builds.<br></br><br></br>Soon a plate gives way and jolts past the other.<br></br><br></br>Built-up energy is released as seismic waves, leading to Earthquakes.

99
Q

What are and aren’t the consequences of Conservative Plate Boundaries?

A

Destructive Earthquakes.<br></br><br></br>Not Volcanoes.

100
Q

What are Conservative Plate Boundaries? Example?

A

When plates slide past each other. <br></br><br></br>San Andreas Fault.

101
Q

How do Conservative Boundaries form Earthquakes?

A

Plates get stuck,<br></br><br></br>Pressure is built.<br></br><br></br>They snap past eachother, <br></br><br></br>Energy released cause Earthquakes.

102
Q

What are Collision plate boundaries?

A

When two continental plates move towards eachother. They move extremely slowly, over millions of years.

103
Q

How do Collision Plate Boundaries create Earthquakes?

A

Plates get caught on eachother,<br></br><br></br>Pressure is built,<br></br><br></br>Energy releases as a plate snaps past.

104
Q

What is a Geological consequence of Collision Plate Boundaries that isn’t an Earthquake? Over how many years? Example?

A

Orogeny.

Over millions of years, the crust of the Earth is pushed upwards, forming mountain ranges.

Example: Himalayas

105
Q

Where does Freeze-Thaw Weathering and Erosion occur?

A

In extreme temperatures.

106
Q

What is the process of Freeze-Thaw?

A

Water goes into the cracks of the rock,

It freezes and expands in the crack, putting pressure on the rock,

In the day the ice melts, leaving behind a bigger gap,

Repeat until rock die.

107
Q

Where does Onion Skin Weathering and Erosion occur?

A

In very hot areas; hot days and cold nights. E.g. Deserts.

108
Q

How does Onion Skin Weathering and Erosion work?

A

Surface of the rock expands and contracts frequently due to the temperature changes,<br></br><br></br>It breaks off.

109
Q

What is Acid Rain made of?

A

Acidic rainwater due to carbonic acid, from dissolved carbon dioxide.

For further acidity, sulfer dioxide works as well.

110
Q

What does Acid Rain react with?

A

Limestone chalk or marble.<br></br><br></br>Calcium Carbonate

111
Q

What does Acid Rain do to rocks?

A

Breaks them down

112
Q

What are aspects of Biological Weathering and Erosion?

A

Plant roots break rocks.<br></br><br></br>Animal walking breaks down rock.<br></br><br></br>Anything living really just breaks down rock.

113
Q

What are the differences between Rocks and Minerals?

A

Their chemical composition, Study, Colour, Shape, Nutrition, Biological Function, Fossils.

114
Q

What is the difference between Rocks and Minerals in term of Chemical Composition?

A

Rock: Not definite
Mineral: Definite and inorganic

115
Q

What is the difference between Rocks and Minerals in term of Colour

A

Rocks: Not the Same
Minerals: Same

116
Q

What is the difference between Rocks and Minerals in term of Examples?

A

Rocks: Limestone, basalt
Minerals: Gold, silver, fluoride

117
Q

What is the difference between Rocks and Minerals in term of Fossils?

A

Rocks: Sometimes
Minerals: None

118
Q

What is the difference between Rocks and Minerals in term of Biology?

A

Rocks: Shelter and Foundation
Minerals: Bone formation, blood coagulation, muscle contraction

119
Q

What is the difference between Rocks and Minerals in term of Nutriton?

A

Rocks: Little to none.
Mineral: Only some for nutrition.

120
Q

What is the difference between Rocks and Minerals in term of Shape?

A

Rock: Not definite
Mineral: Usually have a shape

121
Q

What is the difference between Rocks and Minerals in term of Study or Expertise?

A

Rocks: Petrology
Minerals: Mineralogy

122
Q

What does movement of Tectonic plates against eachother do?

A

Causes the plates to fold and fault.

123
Q

What happens when a rock is placed under stress?

A

It deforms and/or changes shape.

124
Q

What is Deformation?

A

The process by which rocks change shape when under stress.

125
Q

What is Folding?

A

A process where rock layers bend under stress. Its bends are called folds.

126
Q

What is the Scientific Assumption about Rock Laayers?

A

That all rock layers start out as horizontal layers deposited on top of eachother over time.

127
Q

What does Folding mean for a rock? As in, what can be inferred about the rock’s past?

A

That deformation has happened.

128
Q

What are the Two Types of Folding?

A

Synclines and Anticline.

129
Q

What is a Syncline?

A

It is a type of fold.

In a syncline, the youngest layers of rock are at the core of the fold.
The rock layers are usually arched downward, like a bowl.

130
Q

What are Anticlines?

A

In an anticline, the oldest layers of rock are at the core of the fold.

The rock layers are usually arched upward.

131
Q

What is a Fault?

A

A fault is a fracture or crack formed when large blocks of rock break and move past eachother.

It is caused by stress leading to the breaking of a rock.

132
Q

What are Fault Blocks?

A

The blocks on either side of the fault.

133
Q

What can movement of Faults cause?

A

Mountains and other Landforms.

134
Q

What are the Types of Faults?

A

Strike-Slip (Transform) faults,
Normal Faults,
Reverse Faults.

135
Q

What is a Fault Plane?

A

Location where two fault blocks meet.

136
Q

What is the Hanging Wall<span>?</span>

A

For any fault except a perfectly vertical fault, the block above the fault plane is called the hanging wall.

137
Q

What is the Footwall?

A

For any fault except a perfectly vertical fault, the block below the fault plane is the footwall.

138
Q

What is a Normal Fault in Brief?

A

Hanging wall moves Down,

Extensional Stress

Divergent Boundaries

139
Q

What are Reverse Faults in Brief?

A

Hanging wall moves Up,

Compressional Stress,

Convergent Boundary.

140
Q

What are Strike-Slip Boundaries in Brief?

A

Horizontal movement.

Shear Stress.

Conservative/Transform Boundary

141
Q

What is a Strike-Slip Fault?

A

A fault that forms when fault blocks move past eachother horizontally.

142
Q

What type of Energy is present in Strike-Slip Faults?

A

Shear Stress: Stress that pushes rocks in parallel opposite directions

143
Q

What cause Strike-Slip Faults?

A

Usually transform boundaries

144
Q

What is a Normal Fault?

A

A fault that is created from hanging walls moving downwards relative to the footwall.

As you’d “normally” expect it to move according to gravity.

145
Q

What type of Energy and Boundary forms Normal Faults?

A

Tension: Stress that pushes or pulls<br></br><br></br>Forms from Divergent Boundaries

146
Q

What is a Reverse Fault?

A

A fault that is created from the hanging wall moving up relative to the footwall.

147
Q

What type of Energy and Boundary cause Reverse Fault?

A

Compression: Stress that squeezes or pushes <br></br><br></br>Convergent Plate Boundaries

148
Q

What happens when rock bends? Breaks?

A

When rocks bend, folds form; when rocks break, faults form.

149
Q

What happens when a rock is subject to too much stress?

A

It breaks; a Fault forms.

150
Q

What is another way of stating the process of Clastic Sedimentary Formation? It is in steps, but not as detailed.

A

Eroded sediments are deposited and begin sedimentation.

With time, upper layers pile up and press down the lower layers; Compaction.

Fluids are expelled.

Salt crystals glue the layers together; Cementation.

151
Q

What is an analogy for the Earth? Why?

A

A hard-boiled egg:

It has a hard crust around the edge;

The yellow yolk in the centre is like the earth’s core;

The egg white is like the mantle.

152
Q

What is Chemical Weathering and Erosion?

A

Acid Rain.

153
Q

What is Physical Weathering and Erosion?

A

Onion-Skin (exfoliation),
Freeze-Thaw.

154
Q

What is Deformation?

A

The process by which rocks change shape when under stress.

155
Q

What is Elastic Deformation?

A

Deformation where rock is bent, but returns back to original shape when force is stopped; a reversible strain.

156
Q

What is Plastic/Ductile Deformation?

A

Deformation where a rock is bent close to breaking and held so that, when released, the bend is kept.

It is an irreversible strain.

157
Q

What is a Fracture Deformation?

A

A deformation where the rock is broken; an irreversible strain where the material is broken.

158
Q

Elastic vs Fracture?

A

Elastic is more plastic, the latter is more brittle.

159
Q

What are all the types of stress that can be applied to a rock?

A

Confining/Uniform, Shear, Compression, Tension

160
Q

What is Confining/Uniform Stress?

A

Equal stress on all sides.