Systems Flashcards
Define cellular respiration
A set of metabolic processes in cells that convert chemical energy from organic molecules into energy the cell can use in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
What is the cellular respiration formula
Glucose (C6H12O6) + Oxygen (6O2) ——> Carbon Dioxide (6CO2) + Water (H2O) + Energy (ATP)
What does ATP consist of
Adenine (nitrogenous base)
Sugar ribose
3 phosphate groups
Define glycolysis
The breakdown of a glucose molecule to pyruvic acid, releasing energy to form 2 ATP. This process occurs in the cytoplasm and DOESNT NOT require oxygen
Define anaerobic respiration
When there is no oxygen Available
Define aerobic respiration
When oxygen is available
State the different stages of anaerobic respiration, where it occurs and how many ATP after
STAGE 1: glycolysis (2ATP) STAGE 2: fermentation -2 pyruvic molecules —> lactic acid - lactic acid is taken t the liver -lactic acid + oxygen—> glucose —> glycogen - oxygen debt occurs and must be ‘repaid’ WHERE ITS FOUND: cytosol ATP: 2 ATP
State the different stages of aerobic respiration, where it occurs and how many ATP after
STAGE 1: glycolysis (2ATP)
STAGE 1.1:
- 2 pyruvic molecules —> acetyl coenzyme (CoA) by removing a CO2
STAGE 2: citric acid/ kerbs cycle
- the acetyl CoA enters the citric acid cycle where the carbon atoms are released in CO2 (one product if cellular respiration) (2ATP)
STAGE 3: electron transport system
- electrons are the passed between molecules resulting in oxygen becoming water (2nd product of cellular respiration) (34ATP)
WHERE ITS FOUND: mitochondria
TOTAL ATP: 38 ATP
Define respiratory system
Specialised to facilitate in in take of oxygen and the removal of carbon dioxide.
What does the respiratory system consist of (there are 7)
- ) nose and nasal cavity
- ) pharynx
- ) trachea
- ) bronchi
- ) bronchioles
- ) alveoli
- ) lungs
Describe the function and structure of the nose and mouth
STRUCTURE: - convoluted - lined with mucus, membranes and hairs FUNCTION: - warm and humidify air - trap debris (dust)
Describe the function and structure of the pharynx
STRUCTURE:
- region tween nasal cavity and the top of the trachea and oesophagus
FUNCTION:
- passage way for air before being diverted to the trachea by the epiglottis
Describe the function and structure of the trachea
STRUCTURE: - c- shaped cartilage rings - epithelial lining with mucus - contains cilia FUNCTION: - carries air into and out of the lungs - traps dust and debris
Describe the function and structure of the bronchi
STRUCTURE:
- contains cartilage
- primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi
FUNCTION:
- take air into different parts of the lungs
Describe the function and structure of the bronchioles
STRUCTURE: - smooth muscle and elastin - contains cilia FUNCTION: - controls the flow of air in the lungs - expand when body needs oxygen - tap contaminants
Describe the function and structure of the alveoli
STRUCTURE: - ting air sacs in clusters - make up most of the lungs FUNCTION: - functional unit of the lungs where gas exchange occurs
Describe the function and structure of the lungs
STRUCTURE:
- two lungs (left has 2 lobes, right has 3 lobes)
- covered in pieural fluid
- contain alveoli
- surrounded by diaphragm
FUNCTION:
- allows lungs to slide along the chest wall (pieural fluid)
- sire of gases moving between the blood in capillaries and air in the alveoli
Define ventilation (breathing)
The process of air moving in an out of the lungs
Define inspiration
The process of taking air into the lungs
Define expiration
The process of taking air out of your lungs
Steps for inspiration
- ) diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract
- ) volumes of the chest cavity increases to expand
- ) air pressure inside is LOWER than outside
- ) air flows in until pressure becomes equal 
Steps for expiration
- ) diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax
- ) volume of the chest cavity decreases causing lungs to contract
- ) air pressure inside the lungs as HIGHER than outside the lungs
- ) air flows out until pressure is equal
Describe the structure of the alveoli
LARGE INTERNAL SURFACE AREA:
large amounts of gases can be exchanged through diffusion in a relatively short amount of time
BLOOD SUPPLY FROM CAPILLARIES:
as much blood as possible is close to the air in the alveoli
THIN WALLS:
only one cell thick. Small distance for gas molecules (O2 and CO2) to travel when moving in and out of the blood
Define blood
The transport medium between the cells of all the body systems.
What does blood composed of
Plasma
Formed elements
—> erythrocytes, leukocytes and thrombocytes
Define plasma and its function
The liquid part in which cells are suspended in. The function is to transport components of blood (cells nutrients, wastes, hormones, proteins, antibodies) around the body.
What does plasma consist of
Water with dissolved substances (sugar and salt)
Define the formed elements
The non liquid part consisting of erythrocytes, leukocytes and thrombocytes.
Describe the function and structure of erythrocytes (red blood cells)
STRUCTURE: biconcaved structure, no nucleus and flexible.
FUNCTION: responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to all the cells in the body.
Describe the function and structure of thrombocytes (platelets)
STRUCTURE: fragments of cytoplasm enclosed in a membrane, and no nucleus.
FUNCTION: blood clotting
Describe the function of leukocytes
FUNCTION: protects the body from infection.
Define granulocytes and examples
Have granules in their cytoplasm and lobed nuclei
Examples: eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils
Define agranulocytes and examples
Do not have granules in their cytoplasm and has a spherical nuclei
Examples: lymphocytes, monocytes
Steps of blood clotting process
- Vasoconstriction: muscles in the small arteries constrict to reduce blood loss and blood flow
- Platelet plug: damage to the blood vessels causes the internal surface to become rough and platelets to stick. Platelets build up to become a ‘plug’ to reduce blood loss
- Coagulation: clotting factors form an insoluble protein called fibrin. Fibrin threads create a mesh, trapping blood cells, platelets and plasma
- Clot retraction: fibrin threads contract, pulling the edges of the blood vessel together
Define the circulatory system
The body’s main transport system consisting of the heart, blood, blood vessels, lymph and lymph vessels.
Define the heart and the location
A hollow muscular organ consisting of 4 chambers that pump blood around the body. It’s located between the lungs in the mediastinum, behind and slightly left of the sternum.
Define pericardium
The membrane that completely enclosed the heart. It holds the heart in place but also allows the heart to slide when beating
Define septum
Seperates left and right sides of the heart
What does the left atrium do?
Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and passes it to the left ventricle.
What does the right atrium do?
Receives deoxygenated blood from the body and passes to the right ventricle.
What does the left ventricle do?
Pumps out oxygenated blood to the body
What does the right ventricle do?
Pumps out deoxygenated blood to the lungs
What is the structure and function of the atrioventricular valve (name both valve)
TRICUSPID: between right atrium and right ventricle
BICUSPID: between left atrium and left ventricle
FUNCTION: seal off opening between atria and ventricle to present blood flow back
What is the structure and function of the semilunar valve (name both valve)
PULMONARY: between right ventricle and pulmonary artery
AORTIC: between left ventricle and aorta
FUNCTION: seal off opening between ventricles and arteries to present blood flowing back
What is the structure and function of the chordae tendineae
STRUCTURE: tendon like
FUNCTION: connect papillary muscles to valves
What is the structure and function of the papillary muscles
STRUCTURE: muscles in ventricles
FUNCTION: anchor the valves
What is the structure and function of arteries and add an example
STRUCTURE: thick smooth muscle walls with elastic fibres
FUNCTION: takes blood away from the heart
Example: aorta and pulmonary artery
What is the structure and function of veins and add an example
STRUCTURE: thin inelastic walls with little muscles
FUNCTION: carry blood towards the heart
Examples: vena cavae and pulmonary veins
What is the structure and function of capillaries and add an example
STRUCTURE: 1 cell thick
FUNCTION: link arteries and veins
Examples: fenestrated, continuous and sinusoid
Define the lymphatic system and the function
A system of vessels that drinks excess fluid from the tissue and return it back to the circulatory system. It plays and important role of defending the body against micro-organisms that can cause diseases
Define lymph
Colourless fluid that circulates through the lymphatic vessels when skeletal muscles contract
Define lymph vessels
Large blind-ended vessels that collect lymph and return it to the blood
Define lymph nodes
An oval or bean shaped structure found on lymph vessels
Define lymphoid tissue
Tissue in lymph nodes containing lymphocytes and macrophages
Define blood transfusion
The transfer of blood or the components of blood into a persons circulation. It involves the blood or blood components being injected directly into the recipients blood stream.
Name the 4 types of blood transfusion
Whole blood
Red cell concentrates
Platelet concentrates
Plasma
What is whole blood transfusion and it’s purpose
Blood with clotting chemicals. The purpose is to replace large volumes of blood that were lost.
What is red cell concentrate transfusion and it’s purpose
Usually red blood cells from centrifuging but can contain some platelets and white blood cells. It’s purpose is to help with heart disease and severe anaemia (low iron)
What is platelet concentrate transfusion and it’s purpose
A high concentration of platelets and growth factors reduce inflammation. It’s purpose is to help patients with low platelet count or function (patients receiving chemo)
What is plasma transfusion and it’s purpose
Liquid part of the blood only. The purpose is to help patients that need clotting factors or with severe liver disease.
Define digestion
The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed into the blood stream.
Define alimentary canal and what does it include
The continuous tube that food passes and undergoes active digestion and nutrient absorption
It includes the: mouth cavity, oesophagus, stomach, small + large intestine, rectum and anus
What are the accessory organs and what they are used for
They are used to store or secrete substances (enzymes) that pass through ducts and are needed for digestion.
It includes the: salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, pancreas
What are the different types of digestion
Mechanical
Chemical
What is mechanical digestion, the function and where it occurs
Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces. It’s function is to increase surface area for chemical digestion as well as speed up digestion. It occurs in the teeth, stomach and small intestine.
What is chemical digestion, the function and where it occurs
Chemical digestion uses enzymes to break large complex molecules into smaller + simpler molecules. It’s function is to break down large molecules so they are small enough to enter the bloodstream. It occurs in the salivary glands, stomach and small intestine.
What is the mouth cavity and it’s function
It contains teeth, tongue and salivary glands.
FUNCTION:
1. Cut, grind and tear food through mastication
2. secrete salivary amylase which breaks starch down into simple sugars.
What is the oesophagus and it’s function
It connects the pharynx to stomach. It contains circular and longitudinal muscles
FUNCTION: tube for bolus to pass through from the mouth to the stomach through peristalsis
What is the stomach and it’s function
The stomach is a J shaped bag with circular, longitudinal and oblique layers of muscle. It contains mucosa that secretes gastric juice.
FUNCTION:
1. Waves of muscular contractions churn the food into chyme
2. Pepsinogen in gastric breakdown proteins into poly peptides
What is the small intestine and it’s function
It is 6m long and divided into 3 sections: duodenum, jejunum and ileum. It contains villi
FUNCTION:
1. Segmentation breaks the bolus down and mixes it with juices and bile salts which breaks down fats
2. Secretes intestinal juice. Nutrient absorption
What is the large intestine and it’s function
It is 1.5m long spans divided into 4 sections: caecum, colon, rectum and anus. Has no villi or digestive juices
FUNCTION: absorb water and vitamins. Formation of faeces from undigested food. Water, bacteria and bile. Stores faeces and begins defecation.
What is the livers function and what does it secrete
It is to produce bile
The bile emulsifies fats breaking it into tiny droplets (mechanical digestion)
What is the gallbladders function and what does it secrete
To store bile
The bile emulsifies fats breaking it into tiny droplets (mechanical digestion)
What is the function of the pancreas and what is it’s function
It secretes pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic juice neutralises the gastric juices and contains: - pancreatic amylase ~starch—> disaccharides -pancreatic protease ~proteins—> peptides -pancreatic lipase ~ fats —> fatty acids and glycerol -deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease ~ digest DNA and RNA
Why must waste products be removed
To maintain general health - many wastes are toxic - if left in high concentration ps cells can die or become dysfunctional To maintain homeostasis -regulated blood pressure -regulated body temperature
Define excretion
The removal of metabolic wastes from the body
What are some wastes
Carbon dioxide
Urea and Uric acid
Salts
Ammonia
What are the organs for excretion
Kidney Sweat glands Alimentary canal Lungs Liver
Where does ammonia come from and what is the organ of excretion
It comes from deamination by the live
Organ of excretion: kidney
Where does urea come from and what is the organ of excretion
It comes from deamination by the live
Organ of excretion: kidney
Where does uric acid come from and what is the organ of excretion
It comes from the breakdown of nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA
Organ of excretion: kidney
Where does carbon dioxide come from and what is the organ of excretion
It is a waste product of cellular respiration
Organ of excretion: lungs
Where does bile pigment come from and what is the organ of excretion
It comes from the breaking down of old erythrocytes
Organ of excretion: liver
Where does lactic come from and what is the organ of excretion
It is a product of anaerobic respiration
Organ of excretion: liver
What is the function of the lungs
Excretes CO2 during cellular respiration and water vapour
What is the function of the sweat glands (skin)
Excretes sweat containing water and wastes (salts, urea, lactic acid) and if cools the body
What is the function of the liver
Processes toxic ammonia —> urea
Processes lactic acid from anaerobic respiration
Processes alcohol and drugs (antibiotics)
Breaks down old erythrocytes into bile pigments
What is the function of the alimentary canal
Excretes bile pigments (bilirubin) from the small intestine
What is the structure and function of the kidney
STRUCTURE: 11cm long
Bean shaped
Contain the functional unit called the nephron
Sits below the adrenal gland
FUNCTION: filters the blood
Maintain the concentration of water and salts in bodily fluids
Removes toxic wastes from the bloodstream such as ammonia, urea and uric acid
Production of urine
What are the roles the liver plays during excretion
Converting ammonia to urea
Detoxification of alcohol and drugs
Deactivation of hormones
Break down haemoglobin into bile pigments
Define deamination
The removal of the amino group from a amino acid molecule. It occurs in the liver
What are the 2 equations from deamination
1.) Amino acid + oxygen —deaminase—> carbohydrate + ammonia (NH3)
2.) Ammonia + carbon dioxide —> urea + water
(2NH3). + (CO2). —> (CH4N2O). +. (H2O)
