SY3 Understanding Politics Flashcards
1
Q
Politics
A
The battles or struggles for power between different social groups and individuals
2
Q
Power
A
The capacity to get your own way in society.
3
Q
Counter power
A
Term used to describe attempts to socially resist powerful groups. (Manuel Castells)
4
Q
Coercion
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Power arising from force or the threat of force. (Weber)
5
Q
Authority
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Legitimate power based on consent, where people voluntarily submit to the will of others. (Weber)
6
Q
Legitimacy
A
Where power becomes authority. People see existing power structures as right and acceptable
7
Q
Charismatic authority
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Authority derived from the power of the personality and persuasiveness of leaders. (Weber)
8
Q
Traditional authority
A
Authority derived from a belief in long-standing customs. (Weber)
9
Q
Legal rational authority
A
Authority based on laws, rules and regulations
10
Q
Decision making
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The power to make, influence and implement decisions which affect other people (Lukes)
11
Q
Agenda management
A
The power to set agendas and therefore limit what’s being discussed. Also called ‘non-decision making’ (Lukes)
12
Q
Wish manipulation
A
The power to shape people’s minds i.e. ‘ideological power’ (Lukes)
13
Q
Democracy
A
Government or rule by the people.
14
Q
Direct democracy
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A form of democracy where all citizens or members of a community make the decisions themselves (‘participatory democracy’).
15
Q
Referendums
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Where the government allows the public a vote on a question about a particular issue or policy. (e.g. membership of the EU)
16
Q
Representative democracy
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An indirect form of democracy where the people regularly elect representatives in free and fair elections
17
Q
Liberal democracy
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A special form of representative democracy associated with respect for diversity and civil liberties
18
Q
Civil liberties
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Personal and social freedoms which are guaranteed by law e.g. ‘freedom of speech’
19
Q
Authoritarian states
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Countries where the people’s participation in political affairs is denied or severely restricted (i.e. the opposite of democracy)
20
Q
Dictatorship
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Rule by a single individual or political entity (e.g. Hitler’s Third Reich)
21
Q
Monarchical absolutism
A
A society where the Royal Family rule (e.g. Saudi Arabia)
22
Q
Junta
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Rule by the military (e.g. Burma)
23
Q
Theocracy
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Rule by religious leaders (e.g. Iran)
24
Q
Totalitarianism
A
A term used to describe the most extreme forms of authoritarian government that rule through all encompassing propaganda, brutality and terror (e.g. North Korea)
25
The great firewall of China
A term used to describe the attempts by the Chinese government to censor the internet within China
26
Chartism
A 19thC working class social movement which campaigned for every man to be given the vote in the UK
27
Suffragettes
Were members of women's organization (right to vote) movements in the late 19th and early 20th century
28
Suffrage
Means the right to vote (also known as the 'franchise')
29
Universal suffrage
When all members of the adult population have the right to vote
30
Parliamentary democracy
A term used to describe the UK’s system of representative democracy where the power of the UK parliament is sovereign
31
Parliament
The UK’s national legislature. It consists of 3 parts: The Queen, The House Of Commons (the elected part of Parliament and therefore the most powerful) and the House of Lords.
32
MPs
Members of Parliament. These are the 650 people who are elected to represent the electorate in the House of Commons
33
Constituency
The geographical area represented by a Member of Parliament (MP). Also known as a 'seat'.
34
First past the post
The name given to the electoral system used to elect MPs in UK General Elections
35
Hung Parliament
A situation where no single party has an overall majority of MPs in the House of Commons. This may lead to the formation of a Coalition Government.
36
Coalition
Where at least 2 political parties are in government together
37
Government
Has responsibility for developing and implementing policy and for drafting laws. It is also known as the 'Executive'.
38
The Cabinet
The ultimate decision-making body of the UK government consisting of the Prime Minister and other senior ministers (Secretaries of State) who lead big government departments.
39
Cold War
The situation which prevailed after the Second World War, when the major communist and capitalist countries were in strong confrontation with each other
40
Communism
A political and social arrangement in societies characterised by State control of the means of production and a monopoly of political power by the Communist party
41
The Velvet Revolutions
A term used to describe the largely peaceful revolutions that led to the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe
42
The Arab Spring
The series of anti-government protests and demonstrations that swept across the Middle East and North Africa after the uprising in Tunisia in December 2010.
43
Crisis of legitimation
A term used by Manuel Castells to describe the lack of trust in political institutions and leaders in many established democracies
44
The state
A central authority which has legal control over the population within a set territory. The key institutions that make up most modern states include the executive, legislature and the judiciary. Most modern states are ‘Nation States’
45
Constitution
A legal framework detailing the composition and responsibilities of the main institutions that make up the State. In other words the rules by which a State governs the people within its territory
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Nation states
Countries that have their own central systems of political and legal authority. They operate within specific boundaries and they have legal control over the population within these boundaries
47
Sovereignty
The power, usually ascribed to a Nation State, to make decisions of government without the influence of external forces
48
Social contract theory
The idea first put forward by the philosopher Thomas Hobbes that individuals should be willing to give up some of their rights and power to the State in exchange for protection
49
Bureaucracy
Refers to an organisation run by officials appointed on merit, with distinct roles based on specialised knowledge, who know their place in a hierarchy of authority and who follow impersonal and rational rules in the making of decisions (i.e. it is based on legal rational authority)
50
The iron cage of bureaucracy
Weber used this phrase to highlight the way in which bureaucratic forms of organisation can put us in a metaphorical iron cage, which limits individual human freedom and innovation because people have to follow impersonal rules rather than their own creativity
51
Legislature
An institution of the state with the power to make and change the law (legislation). In Britain this is the UK Parliament based in Westminster
52
Executive
This is the part of the state that people usually call the government. In the UK it is headed by the Prime Minister and Cabinet, but also includes the Civil Service. It is responsible for proposing new legislation and budgets for Parliament to consider, and the implementation of policies and laws in the country
53
Civil Service
Does the practical and administrative work of government. It is staffed by unelected and politically neutral officers and is run along the legal-rational principles of a bureaucracy
54
Formal agents of social control
Those parts of the state which are responsible for enforcing the law and punishing those people who break the law. This includes the Police, the Prison service and the Court System and Judiciary
55
Judiciary
The collective term for judges. The role of judges is to adjudicate the meaning of law and to decide legal disputes in a fair and balanced fashion
56
Security states
The idea that after the 9/11 terrorist attacks on New York and Washington DC security and social control have been tightened up in many western democracies
57
The Snowden files
These revealed a number of mass-surveillance programs undertaken by the US National Security Agency. The agencies are able to access information stored by major US technology companies, often without individual warrants, as well as mass-intercepting data from the fibre-optic cables
58
Kettling
A police tactic for controlling large crowds during demonstrations or protests. It involves the formation of large lines of police officers who then move to contain a crowd within a limited area
59
Military
The collective term for the Armed Forces (army, navy and air-force)
60
Militarism
A cultural and ideological phenomenon in which military priorities, ideals and values come to pervade the larger society. This typically includes the glorification of the armed forces, a heightened sense of national patriotism, the recognition of war as a legitimate instrument of policy, and a belief in the heroism and self-sacrifice of war
61
Secularism
Is a principle that involves two basic propositions. The first is the strict separation of the state from religious institutions. The second is that people of different religions and beliefs are equal before the law.
62
Warfare state
This term refers to the expansion in the role of State in the early 20th C brought about by the two world wars
63
Welfare state
This term refers to the state’s role in providing a minimum standard of living for all of its citizens. Although particularly associated with the payment of benefits to the needy, the term also refers to the state providing healthcare (NHS), education, housing, council houses and other social services
64
Post war consensus
A name given to an era in post-war British political history, from the end of World War II in 1945 to 1979. During this period there was widespread agreement in society and politics that expanding the role of the welfare state was a good idea
65
‘Rolling back the state’
This refers to the attempts by the ‘New Right’ governments of the 1980s to reduce the role of the state. State owned industries were privatised and welfare provision was trimmed
66
‘The New Right’
Term used to describe the Conservative governments led by Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s that were influenced by the Neo-Liberal idea that the ‘state that does least is best’.
67
Privatisation
A government policy which is concerned to reduce the public sector as much as possible through the transfer of industries and services to private companies and shareholders
68
Public sector
Those activities which are organised and funded by national and local governments. For example state education and the NHS.
69
‘The Big Bang’
This refers to the decision taken in 1986 by the Conservative government to massively de-regulate the financial services industry (Banks etc.)
70
State regulation
Where the government controls a market by introducing laws that businesses have to follow
71
State deregulation
Involves the removal of some of the laws that businesses have to follow. This is often referred to as ‘the cutting of red tape’
72
The Third Way
The term used to describe Tony Blair’s ‘New Labour’ idea that you could balance the needs of business with the needs of society, including the poor and vulnerable
73
Triangulated ideology
Where a politician presents his or her political ideology as being "above" and "between" the "left" and "right" sides (or "wings") of a traditional democratic "political spectrum". E.g. ‘The Third Way’
74
Audit culture
Refers to the plethora of targets, quotas and plans that public sector workers have had to follow and the creation of new managers and consultants to check that these workers were meeting their targets
75
Austerity
This is the policy of reducing government debt. This may include spending cuts, tax increases, or a mixture of both
76
Deficit reduction
The process of reducing the amount by which a government’s spending is more than the money it receives in taxes
77
Banking crisis of 2007/8
A global financial crisis which was triggered by banks giving mortgages (‘subprime mortgages’) and other loans to poor people who couldn’t afford to pay these loans back
78
Political ideology
A coherent set of ideas and beliefs that provide the basis for some form of political action
79
Left wing ideologies
Ideologies on this side of the political spectrum stress the collective interests of the community above that of the individual and the redistribution of wealth to benefit the disadvantaged working class
80
Right wing ideologies
Ideologies on this side of the political spectrum stress the rights of individuals and businesses to be free from government interference
81
Capitalism
An economic system where most production is initiated & undertaken by private companies who aim to generate profit from this activity
82
Conservatism
A broad political ideology based on beliefs in the maintenance of the traditional institutional framework of society, free enterprise, and law and order. In a nutshell: 'If it ain’t broke don’t fix it'
83
Neoliberalism
A political ideology closely associated with the ‘New Right’ Conservative governments from Margaret Thatcher onwards. In a nutshell: ‘The state that does least is best’
84
Social Democracy
A left of centre political ideology that accepts the existence and continuation of a capitalist society, but which is interested in achieving a more equitable distribution of wealth within that society
85
Individualism
Ways of thinking, usually subscribed to by right wing thinkers, that focus on and emphasise the importance of the individual in social and political life
86
Collectivism
Ways of thinking, usually subscribed to by left wing thinkers, that place more weight on the ‘common good’ and community than the rights of individuals.
87
Socialism
A term used to describe various left wing political ideologies that provide a critique of capitalism and advocate fundamental changes to the structure of society to improve the welfare of the working class
88
Marxism
A radical, revolutionary form of socialism which believes that the welfare of the working class can only be achieved by overthrowing capitalism and replacing it with a communist society
89
Anarchism
A political ideology which advocates social life without the state
90
Feminism
A political movement and ideology that aims to advance the social role of women by challenging patriarchy in all of its forms
91
Patriarchy
A term used to describe male dominance over women. In politics this is reflected in the under-representation of women in positions of political power
92
Environmentalism
The ideology of the green movement which concerns itself with the protection of the natural environment
93
Political parties
A group of people organised for the purpose of winning government power through elections
94
Party manifestos
A pre-election document containing a political party’s policy pledges and proposals for government legislation and spending
95
Labour Party
A left of centre political party with its origins in the trade union movement
96
Conservative Party
A right of centre political party that is currently in Government. The party has traditionally appealed mainly to business groups and the upper and middle classes.
97
Liberal Democrats
This party is often considered to occupy the ‘centre ground’ of British politics
98
Aggregation of interests
Where the political demands of groups and individuals are combined into policy programs by political parties
99
Party membership
The number of people who belong to a political party, usually by paying an annual subscription
100
Anti-politics
The view that all mainstream politicians lie and that none are to be trusted
101
UKIP
A right wing party that has managed to capitalise on the anti-politics mood within Britain in recent years. Their primary emphasis has been on hard ‘euroscepticism’, calling for the UK's exit from the European Union, and controlling immigration
102
Euroscepticism
A term used to describe those who are critical of the European Union
103
Hacktivism
The act of breaking into a computer system for a politically or socially motivated purpose
104
‘Anonymous’
A loosely associated international network of activist and hacktivist entities. The group became known for a series of well-publicized publicity stunts and cyber-attacks attacks on government, religious, and corporate websites
105
WikiLeaks
An international, non-profit journalistic organisation, which publishes secret information, news leaks and classified media from anonymous sources (e.g. government and corporate ‘whistle blowers’)
106
Ethical consumerism
A type of consumer political activism that is practiced through 'positive buying' of ethical products that are favoured (e.g. ‘Fair Trade’), or 'consumer boycotts’ (choosing not to buy a product on moral or political grounds)
107
Social movement
A large group of people who are distinguished by common aspirations and a high level of political commitment, but often acting within a very loose organisational framework
108
Old social movements
This is a term used to describe the social movements of the 19th and early 20th C. This includes the Labour movement and the Women’s suffrage movement
109
Labour movement
This movement campaigned for improved conditions for the growing working class of the 19th C and included various groups, most notably trade unions
110
New social movements
This term is used to refer to social movements that have emerged from the 1960s onwards including the ‘second wave’ of Feminism, Civil Rights and Anti-Racist Movements, Gay Rights Movements, Environmental or Green Movements and the Peace Movement
111
Post-materialism
Being more concerned with ‘quality of life’ issues (e.g. environmental issues) than with material advancement. This is seen to be a feature of many new social movements
112
Hybrid space
A term used by Castells to describe the interplay between cyberspace and the occupation of urban spaces in recent social movements of the internet age
113
Indignadas
This movement started as a direct critique of the political system in Spain and Europe (particularly the effect of austerity policies in the aftermath of the 2007-8 Banking Crisis) and was inspired by the tactics of the Arab Spring
114
The Occupy Movement
This movement protested against the direct connection between Wall Street (home to the financial services industry in America) and Politics by occupying Wall Street in the autumn of 2011
115
Black Lives Matter
This movement began with the use of the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter on social media, after the acquittal of George Zimmerman in the shooting death of African-American teen Trayvon Martin.
116
Horizontalism
A flat organisational structure where there are no leaders and decisions are taken using participatory democracy
117
Direct action
Political activity outside the formal political process which often relies on demonstrations and occupations on the streets aimed at attracting publicity
118
New technologies
Refers to the internet, digital media and wireless communications. For Castells, the Internet is both a tool but it is also an essential condition to create and maintain leaderless, deliberative and participatory movements, and to foster a culture of autonomy
119
Web 2.0
A term used to describe the way in which the World Wide Web is being used in a more interactive and collaborative way
120
Wireless communications
Things like smart phone, lap-tops and tablet computers
121
Citizen journalism
The collection, dissemination, and analysis of news and information by the general public, especially by means of the Internet
122
Feedback loop
Where published images and videos of things like police brutality towards protests cause outrage and indignation, and that sense of anger feeds into further protests
123
Memes
An idea, behaviour, or style that spreads from person to person within a culture. Examples that have spread via the global media include the occupy movement and the stylised Guy Fawkes mask
124
Classical Pluralism
A perspective on the distribution of power in representative democracies such as the USA and UK. It argues that within these societies power is widely dispersed amongst many different groups and individuals rather than being concentrated in a ruling class or elite
125
Polyarchy
A political system where many groups have influence and power (the opposite of an oligarchy)
126
Countervailing power
Where the political influence of some groups is balanced out by the influence of opposing groups
127
‘Honest Broker’
A view held by Pluralists which sees the role of the state as a ‘referee’ between many different groups and making decisions in the best interests of everyone in society
128
Elite Pluralism
A modified version of Classical Pluralism which accepts the idea that some insider groups may exercise more power than other interest groups
129
Deformed polyarchies
A political system where, although there is the potential for many groups to influence the political process, in practice some insider groups usually have the most influence
130
Marxism (Ruling Class Theory)
A theory which argues that political power is ultimately linked to the ownership of the means of production. In other words political power is based on economic power
131
Economic base
The Marxist idea that the economy is the foundation on which any society is based upon. This is also known as the ‘infrastructure’ and Marxists argue that this shapes and influences over institutions and social processes
132
Superstructure
A Marxist term for society’s social institutions, such as the family, education, the mass media, religion and the political system, and beliefs and values (ideology), which Marx saw as primarily determined (or influenced) by the economic base
133
Economic determinism
An aspect of Marxist theory that suggests all social, political, cultural and ideological activities are caused by the underlying economic system
134
Ruling Class (The Capitalist Class/The Bourgeoisie)
The group that own the means of production. Through owning wealth-creating assets, Marxists argue that this class are able to control much of what goes on in society, including government
135
Means of production
Wealth creating assets such as money, land, factories, raw materials and technology
136
Constant sum view of power (Zero sum view of power)
Suggests there is a fixed amount of power, and therefore, if some hold power, others do not. Since the amount of power is constant, an individual or group holds power to the extent that others do not hold it
137
Instrumental Marxism (Traditional Marxism)
This perspective sees the state being directly controlled by the ruling class. “The executive of the modern state is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie" (Marx & Engels)
138
The ‘revolving door’
This is shorthand for the all-too-common pattern of working in government only to leave to work as a lobbyist or consultant for those you "regulated" while in government
139
Structuralist Marxism (Neo-Marxism)
This version of Marxism argues that the state has relative autonomy from the ruling class, so it doesn’t always do its bidding
140
Relative autonomy
The idea that, even though the state acts in the long term interests of the ruling class, in the short term it may have the freedom to offer some concessions to the working class
141
Hegemony
A term used by Gramsci to describe the domination, especially ideologically, of one social group, usually a social class, over another
142
False consciousness
Where the working class are unable to socially resist capitalism as they are unable to see the true nature of their exploitation and oppression
143
Class consciousness
When the working class recognize their collective interests lie in coming together as a group to socially resist their exploitation
144
Repressive state apparatus
A term used by Althusser to describe those parts of the state which are concerned with mainly coercive means of keeping a population in line, such as the army, police, courts and prison
145
Ideological state apparatuses
A term used by Althusser to describe the agencies that spread the dominant ideology and justify the power of the dominant social class
146
Ideological power
The ability to shape people’s minds in terms that favour the interests of the power holders
147
Elite theories
Perspectives that see power, even within representative democracies, as being monopolised by unaccountable elites. These elites may not only be based on ownership of the means of production but non-economic factors as well
148
Elite
A small group at the top of an area of social life
149
Oligarchy
An organisation or political system where only a small elite has genuine influence (the opposite of a polyarchy)
150
Classical Elite Theory
Argues that the concentration of power in elites is an inevitable (and sometimes desirable) fact of life. (Pareto, Mosca, Michels)
151
Lions
Leaders who achieve power because of their ability to take direct and decisive action (Pareto)
152
Foxes
Leaders who tend to rule by cunning and guile (Pareto)
153
Iron law of oligarchy
A principle developed by Michels, which states that all organisations, however democratic their intentions may be, end up being ruled by a few individuals.
154
Circulation of elites
The Classical Elite Theory argument that political change, even revolutionary, simply replaces on elite with another
155
Philosopher kings
Plato's idea that the most desirable form of political rule is not democracy but rule by an elite consisting of wise philosophers
156
Power Elite Theory
A left wing version of elite theory associated with C Wright Mills. It argues that within the USA there is a cohesive & unified elite who dominate society through their ability to control the important institutional positions in society
157
Power elite (USA)
According to Mills this group is composed of those at the top of the U.S. Government, the military & large corporations. The leaders of these institutions are so interconnected that in practice they form a single, cohesive & unified group
158
Military-industrial complex
A term used by former US President Eisenhower to describe the domination of the USA in the 1960s by an alliance of manufacturers who supplied goods to the armed forces & the key personnel of the military, who wanted larger and larger budgets
159
The military economy
A term used to describe the annual expenditure on the military by the US government (around $700 billion last year)
160
The establishment
A general term for the ruling elites in British society and the title of a recent Owen Jones book about this topic
161
Power elite (Britain)
According to Williams this group is composed of political elites, professional elites and at the very core business and financial elites from ‘the City’
162
The City
A term used to describe the financial services industry (Banks & Insurance companies) based in London. Nicholas Shaxson believes that the British State has been ‘captured by the financial services industry’
163
Political-financial complex
A term used by Steve Keen to describe the close links between ‘the City’ and political elites
164
Fragmented elites
The idea put forward by Budge, that there is a lot of competition and rivalry within and between elite groups (i.e. they are not as cohesive and unified as suggested by Power Elite Theory)
165
Conspiracy theory
A term attached to ideas which rely on asserting that individuals in power act together secretly in order to preserve their own interests against the interests of the rest of society
166
Functionalism (Parsons)
A theory that argues that sees power differentials as necessary for the effective pursuit of collective goals. Cooperation on a large scale requires organisation and direction, which necessitate positions of command
167
Variable sum view of power
A situation of power between two individuals or social groups, in which all participants benefit from the outcome
168
Value consensus
Values that are widely shared and agreed upon within society. From shared values derive collective goals, that is, goals shared by members of society
169
Banking model of democracy
An analogy used by Parsons to describe the operation of power and democracy. Just as money is deposited in a bank, members of society deposit power in political leaders
170
Social representation
Concerns the degree to which political representatives such as MPs are socially representative of the British population as a whole. There are significant concerns about the under-representation of women, ethnic minorities and people from working class backgrounds
171
All women short lists
A political practice intended to increase the proportion of female Members of Parliament (MPs) in the United Kingdom by allowing only women to stand in particular constituencies for a particular political party (only Labour currently use it)
172
French Revolution
A period of far-reaching social and political upheaval in France that lasted from 1789 until 1799. It helped to spread the idea of ‘nationalism’
173
Globalisation
Refers to the growing interconnectedness of individuals, nations and regions of the world. This is leading to the position and power of nation states becoming less clear
174
Political globalisation
Refers to an increasing trend toward multilateralism in which Supranational Organisations play a leading role
175
Multilateralism
Multiple countries working together on a given issue
176
Supranational organisations
International political organisations that operate above the level of nation-states. Examples include the United Nations, The European Union and The Bretton Woods Institutions
177
Devolution
The dispersal of power away from the centre towards outlying areas. In politics, it is used when national governments give more power to regional governments or to county or town councils (also known as de-centralisation or regionalisation)
178
Federalism
A system of government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units (such as states or provinces)
179
Sub-national bodies
Political institutions that exist below the level of the UK Parliament and Government.
180
Multi-layered governance
A situation where political decisions are taken at an international, national and sub-national level. This is one of the consequences of globalisation and devolution
181
Democratic pluralism
In the context of devolution this is the idea that one of the benefits is that decentralisation stops power being too concentrated in the UK government and Parliament
182
Scottish Parliament
This is the most powerful of the devolved assemblies set up in 1999. It has legislative power over most domestic policy in Scotland (e.g. NHS, Education, social care) and also the capacity to vary the basic rate of income tax
183
The West Lothian question
Refers to whether MPs from Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, sitting in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, should be able to vote on matters that affect only England, while MPs from England are unable to vote on matters that have been devolved
184
Nation
A particular geographical area with which a group of people identify, sharing among themselves a sense of belonging based on a common sense of culture, history and usually language
185
Multi-national states
Nation States that are actually composed of different nations that have been amalgamated. For example the United Kingdom is made up of the nations of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland
186
Nationalism
Involves a sense of pride and commitment to a nation, and a very strong sense of national identity
187
Extreme nationalism
Versions of nationalism that exclude certain groups, defining the national community in ethnic, linguistic, cultural, historic, or religious terms (or a combination of these)
188
Voting Behaviour
The study of how the electorate behaves in elections. There are two key issues: 1. What are the reasons for variations in turnout in recent elections? 2. How do people decide who to vote for?
189
Turnout
The proportion of the electorate that actually vote in an election. In the 2015 General Election this was 66.1% but only an estimated 43% for 18-24 year old voters
190
Electorate
All those people entitled to vote in an election
191
Political participation
Any activity that shapes, affects, or involves the political sphere. Examples include voting, attending a rally, committing an act of terrorism, sending a letter to a representative, signing a petition etc.
192
Apathy (apolitical)
The condition of being uninterested in politics. It is usually applied to the young, but many sociologists have been critical of this view, arguing that it is better applied to the vast majority of the population, who exhibit little interest in politics beyond voting
193
Activism
The opposite of apathy
194
Political activist
Somebody who is interested, engaged and participating regularly in politics
195
Rational choice model (turnout)
In relation to variations in turnout this approach directs attention to the costs and benefits of voting, suggesting that turnout will be greater when there are more incentives to vote and costs are kept at a minimum (i.e. is it worth voting?)
196
Marginal constituency/seat
A parliamentary constituency where the election is usually very competitive and is therefore regarded by political parties as an important focus for their election campaigns
197
Safe constituency/seat
A parliamentary constituency which can be relied upon to elect an MP from the same political party at every election
198
Swing voter
Those who are not fixed in their voting habits, but exhibit change in their political preferences (also known as floating voters)
199
Expressive voters
Voters who usually turn out to express their long-term commitment to, or support for, a political party
200
Normative voters
Voters who go to the polls because they see it as part of a citizen’s duty to vote Younger people are much less likely to think of voting as being a duty than older people
201
Instrumental voters
Voters who see voting as simply a means to an end. They will vote for whichever political party they perceive to be in their financial interests (this is sometimes called ‘cheque book voting)
202
Party identification model
This is where voting was seen as an expression of loyalty to a party which was both deep seated and long lasting. In the 1950 & 60s the basis of this party loyalty was social class with a majority of the working class identifying with Labour & a majority of the middle class with the Conservatives (Butler & Stokes)
203
Partisan alignment (Partisan Self Image)
Where, in the past, people identified with a particular party and stuck with it. The British Social Attitudes Surveys clearly show that this is no longer the case for the vast majority of voters
204
Class alignment
The situation in the 1950s & 60s where the majority of the working class voted Labour & the majority of the middle class voted Conservative. Voters who didn’t fit this pattern were known as ‘deviant voters’
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Class identities
The extent to which people see themselves as part of a social class. Those who subscribe to the idea of class de-alignment claim that this is no longer central to how we see ourselves and that we now define ourselves much more through the things that we buy (consumerism) and our lifestyle
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Lifestyle
The way in which people live, usually indicating something about their disposable income
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Consumer identities
Aspects of our identities that come from the things that we buy and the images and status associated with them
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Consumerism
The pressure that society puts on individuals to purchase goods and service for money in ever increasing amounts
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Individualisation
The postmodernist idea that group identities, such as social class, have become less important and that we are now more likely to see ourselves as individuals rather than members of social groups
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Partisan dealignment
Also known as ‘party de-alignment’, this describes the drop in the numbers of voters displaying a strong and lasting identification with the main political parties
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Class dealignment
The weakening of the relationship between social class and party support due to a weakening of class identities in society
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Absolute class voting
This is where growing affluence has encouraged some working-class voters to think of themselves as being middle class. This weakens working class identities and could be one of the reasons for class de-alignment
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Class realignment
This involves sections of the working class forming new identifications with UKIP in England and the SNP in Scotland
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Rational choice model (party choice)
In relation to party choice this looks at how this decision is shaped by policy preferences (i.e. people are voting for the parties whose policies they liked rather than the parties they have been brought up to support). Downs calls this a ‘consumer model’ of voting behaviour
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Valence voting model
An explanation of voting behaviour put forward by Denver which emphasises that individuals vote based upon people's judgements of the overall competence of the rival political parties
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Pressure group
An organized group of people that aims to influence the policies or actions of the government (or other decision makers). This term covers a wide range of organisations, including trade unions, businesses groups, charities and think tanks
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Think tank
An organization that performs research and advocacy concerning topics such as social policy, political strategy, economics, military, technology, and culture
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Interest groups
Pressure groups that represent a particular section of society: workers, employers, consumers, an ethnic or religious group, and so on. (also known as sectional groups)
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Trade union
An organisation that represents a group of workers in negotiations with its employers and, as a pressure group, seeks to influence the government in its economic policy
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Professional body
An organization seeking to further a particular profession, the interests of individuals engaged in that profession and the public interest (e.g. The British Medical Association, The Law Society etc.)
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Cause groups
Pressure groups that are based on shared attitudes or values, rather than the common interests of its members. (also known as promotional or issue groups)
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Insider groups
Pressure groups that are consulted on a regular basis by government e.g. The CBI
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CBI
The Confederation of British Industry is a UK business pressure group, which in total speaks for 190,000 businesses
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Outsider groups
Pressure groups that are kept, or choose to remain, at arm’s length from government. They therefore try to exert influence indirectly via the mass media or through public opinion campaigns
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‘New pressure group politics’
Term used by Paul Fairclough to describe new types of pressure groups such as UK Uncut that are started on the internet, engage in direct action and have a loose informal organisational structure
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Lobbying
The act of attempting to influence decisions made by officials in a government, most often legislators or members of regulatory agencies
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Professional lobbyists
People who, for a fee, arrange contacts between interested parties (often wealthy pressure groups) and those in a position to influence decision making in government (ministers, civil servants and MPs). They often have contacts and experience gained from previous employment in, or close to, government circles
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Hyper-pluralism
A situation in which many groups are so strong that a government is unable to function. This was a criticism that the New Right used to make about Trade Unions – i.e. their ability to take strike action when they didn’t like government policy was seen as an obstacle to effective government in the public interest
