SY2 Media Flashcards
Key terms for this unit
Medium
The technological means by which content is communicated between an origin and a destination, such as a telegraph, telephone, TV, book and so on
Media
The plural of the word ‘medium’ which refers to a channel of communication
Mass media
Forms of communication that transmit information to large audiences through instruments such as newspapers, radio, TV, cinema and the internet
Media text
This term refers to any media product a sociologist wishes to examine. E.g. film, TV programme, web-page, newspaper article etc.
Media as an agency of socialisation
The idea that the media helps to transmit the culture of society by teaching people norms, values etc.
Marxist view of the media
A theory which argues that the media is an ideological instrument of the ruling class. It argues that media owners and advertisers have the biggest influence on media content
Ideological power
The ability to shape people’s minds in terms that favour the power holders. Control of the media can potentially be used for this purpose
Ruling class ideology
A set of ideas that justify the inequalities produced by capitalism. These are transmitted by the capitalist class through agents of socialisation such as the media
‘The new opium of the masses’
A phrase used by Ralph Miliband to describe the ideological effects of the media on audiences
Hegemony
A term used by the Marxist Gramsci to describe the domination of ruling class ideology in society. These ideas help to legitimate capitalism and are accepted as ‘common sense’ by large sections of the population
Legitimation
The process by which the mass of the population come to accept the rule of the few as natural and normal and inequality as fair
False consciousness
A Marxist term suggesting that the working class do not see the true nature of their exploitation, or the fact that they have common interests, because of the influence of ideology
Myth of meritocracy
The (false) belief that capitalism is a fair system where there are equal opportunities for all
American Dream
The idea that equality of opportunity is available to any American, allowing the highest aspirations and goals to be achieved.
Misdirection
A form of deception in which the attention of an audience is focused on one thing in order to distract its attention from another
Poverty porn
Any type of media which exploits the poor’s condition in order to gain audiences
Frankfurt School
A group of German Marxists, e.g. Theodor Adorno, who argue that the capitalist ruling class use the media in an ideological way to control society’s thinking, thus ensuring passive conformity
Culture industry
A Marxist idea, which states that culture (e.g. music and the arts) has become something to be manufactured and sold, in order to make a profit by media companies
Popular culture
The culture of ordinary people
Mass culture
The idea that the mass media are responsible for a commercialised popular culture which revolves around superficial entertainment. This stifles creativity, imagination and critical thought in society
False needs
The outcome of sustained advertising which manipulates people into thinking that a consumer item is vital to their social well being
Pluralist view of the media
A theory which argues that audiences rather than owners, editors or journalists have the most influence on shaping media content. As media audiences are diverse this in turn leads to lots of choice and diversity within the media.
Media saturation
The idea that we live in a society where we are being constantly bombarded by messages and images from the media . As a result media images now dominate and distort the way we see the world
Wireless Communications
Things like smart phones, lap-tops and tablet computers
‘Old media’
Media which rely on print and analogue communication, such as newspapers, print magazines and pre-digital TV and radio
‘New Media’
Media based on digital computers, such as the internet, digital TV and digital radio
Digital natives
A term used to describe younger generations who have grown up in a digital media environment
Digital immigrants
A term used to describe older generations who did not have digital media when they were growing up. They have had to adapt to these technologies later on in life
Digital divide
Inequality between those who can and those who can’t afford, or don’t have the technology or skills to access, the ‘new media’
Web 1.0
A general reference to the World Wide Web during its first few years of operation before blogs, wikis, social networking sites and Web-based applications became commonplace
Web 2.0
A term used to describe the way in which the World Wide Web is being used in a more interactive and collaborative way. E.g. Wikipedia, You-Tube and social networking sites
The medium is the message
Marshall McLuhan’s argument that throughout history what has been communicated has been less important than the particular medium through which people communicate. The technology that transfers the message changes us and changes society, the individual, the family, work, leisure and more
User generated content
Any form of content such as blogs, wikis, discussion forums, posts, chats, tweets, podcasting, digital images, video and other forms of media that was created by users of an online system or service
Prosumer
A term used by David Gauntlett to describe a person who both consumes and produces media
DIY media
Amateur and usually small-scale forms of media
Citizen journalism
Where the public, rather than professional journalists, collect and report news. They often use their smart phones to do this
Feedback loop
Where published images and videos of things like police brutality towards protests cause outrage and indignation, and that sense of anger feeds into further protests
The network society
A term used by Manuell Castells to describe the social, political, economic and cultural changes caused by the spread of networked, digital information and communications technologies
Counter-ideologies
Sets of ideas that challenge the ideology of the dominant groups in society
Iran’s ‘Green Revolution’
Protests against a rigged election in Iran in 2009. The protests were notable for being one of the first to use social media such as twitter as a political tool of protest
The Arab Spring
A term used to describe the recent protests in North Africa and the Middle East. ‘New media’ and ‘citizen journalism’ have played an important role in these protests. (sometimes called the ‘Facebook revolutions’)
Meme
An idea, behaviour, or style that spreads virally from person to person within a culture or globally via the media
Indignadas
A protest movement that emerged in Spain in May 2011 which was inspired by the tactics of the Arab Spring including the use of social media and occupation of urban space
The Occupy movement
A protest which started in New York during September 2011 as a critique of the power of banks and big business over the government. ‘We are the 99%’ was a key meme of this movement
Black Lives Matter
This movement began with the use of the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter on social media, after the acquittal of George Zimmerman in the shooting death of African-American teen Trayvon Martin.
Public media companies
Media companies which exist to provide a public service rather than a profit (e.g. BBC) or are government owned (e.g. Channel 4)
Private media companies
Profit seeking media companies which are either owned by individuals, families or a group of share-holders
Monopoly
A situation in which a single company or group owns all or nearly all of the market for a given type of product or service
Oligopoly
A situation in which a particular market is controlled by a small group of companies. The concentration of media ownership creates this situation
Media concentration
A process whereby progressively fewer individuals or organizations control increasing shares of the mass media (also known as media consolidation or media convergence)
Vertical integration
Where companies try to control every single aspect of a particular media industry. E.g. A media company may make films, produce and distribute the films and own the cinemas where the film is shown
Horizontal integration
Where a media company grows by buying up competitors in the same section of the market. E.g. the technology company Google buying You-Tube a few years ago
Diversification
Where media companies look to operate in as many types of media markets and industries as possible in order to spread risk
Synergy
This is where a large media company can produce many different versions of the same product. E.g. As a movie, a soundtrack, a comic, a video game etc.
Media conglomerates
A media corporation that consists of different brands with diversified interests in a very wide range of products and services. The biggest have a global reach and examples include Disney & News Corporation
Subsidiaries
The different companies or brands that make up a Media Conglomerate
Technological convergence
Media devices that do more than one thing. E.g. A mobile phone which takes video and pictures, downloads movies etc.
Cyber media companies
Media companies which have their origins in computer technology and online activity e.g. Google and Apple
Democracy
A system of government where the population have a say in how the country is run. This depends on a public which is informed, aware and debates the issues of the day
Left wing
Political beliefs associated with the idea that the government should play a strong role in redistributing wealth and promoting social justice
Right wing
Political beliefs that emphasise a minimal role for the government in relation to the economy and social welfare
Phone hacking scandal
A controversy involving the now defunct News of the World. Employees of the newspaper (owned by Murdoch’s News Corporation) were accused of engaging in phone hacking, police bribery, and exercising improper influence in the pursuit of stories
The Leveson Inquiry
An inquiry investigating the role of the press and police in the phone-hacking scandal.
Free press
A situation where the media, including newspapers, are able to express any opinions they want, even if these criticise the government
Public sphere
A term used by Habermas to describe an area in social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence political action
The Fourth Estate
A phrase used to describe the role of the media in protecting democracy and freedom
Prisim
A surveillance program exposed by Edward Snowden & operated by the National Security Agency in the USA, allowing it to access information on its targets from the servers of some of the USA’s biggest technology companies
Censorship
A form of regulation concerned with restricting or banning particular kinds of content on the basis that they are offensive or socially harmful
Closed platform
A software system where the carrier or service provider has control over applications, content, and media, and restricts convenient access to non-approved applications or content (also known as a ‘walled garden’)
Press baron
An influential newspaper publisher or owner who usually controls more than one widely circulated newspaper. E.g. Rupert Murdoch
Neo-Marxist view of the media
This theory focuses on the way in which media professionals largely control the media. It is assumed that they mostly share the outlook and values of media owners due to their privileged social backgrounds (also called the Hegemonic approach)
Capitalism
An economic system based on the private ownership & control of the means of production. In this system most of the media is owned by private corporations who make money by selling audiences to advertisers
Consumer culture
A culture saturated by the buying and selling of material goods, to the extent that consumerism dominates cultural life and consumption habits become markers of identity, status and happiness
Allocative control
Refers to the power of media owners to distribute funds within a media organisation and decide its overall policies and goals
Operational control
This refers to the day to day control of media companies which is largely left to media professionals
Reflection theory
An approach that suggests media reflect or ‘mirror’ existing social values or relations
Consumer sovereignty
The pluralist idea that it is ultimately the public, as consumers of the media, who have the most control over the media
Niche media
Forms of media that are targeted narrowly towards particular groups or types of consumers
Fallacy of choice
McChesney’s argument that we have only the ‘appearance of choice’ as various media are selling the same sort of products. E.g. 100s of digital TV channels showing the same kind of shows
Social construction of the news
The idea that ‘the news’ is a socially manufactured product because it is the end result of a selective process. Journalists cannot report every event which occurs - therefore what counts as news is shaped by a range of influences (e.g. owners, advertisers, media professionals, organisational constraints etc)
The press
Originally this term referred to newspapers but it is now also applied to the news media in general
Tabloids
The ‘popular press’. Newspapers aimed at the working and lower middle class. E.g. The Sun, Daily Mirror, The Mail and Express
Broadsheests
The ‘quality press’. More serious newspapers aimed at the middle and upper classes. E.g. The Times, Telegraph and Guardian
Advertising
The business of trying to persuade people to buy products or services. This is usually the most important form of revenue for private (commercial) media companies
Infotainment
The mix of entertainment and information which now sometimes passes for ‘news’
Public Interest stories
Any news item affecting the rights, health, or finances of the public at large
Gate keepers
In the sociology of the media, this term refers to editors of the news media, whose decisions control what does and does not get published
Agenda setting
The power of the mass media to decide which events or issues are most deserving of public attention
Newsworthy
Those items selected by editors and journalists as being of importance and thus which should be broadcast
News values
A term used by Galtung & Ruge to describe the general guidelines or criteria that media professionals use to determine the worth of a news story i.e. is the story interesting enough to grab a significant audience?
Frequency (news value)
Events that occur suddenly and fit well with the news organization’s schedule are more likely to be reported than those that occur gradually or at inconvenient times of day or night
Familiarity/Proximity (news value)
To do with people or places close to home
Negativity (news value)
Bad news is more newsworthy than good news
Unexpectedness (news value)
If an event is out of the ordinary it will have a greater effect than something that is an everyday occurrence.
Unambiguity (news value)
Events whose implications are clear make for better copy than those that are open to more than one interpretation
Personalization (news value)
Events that can be portrayed as the actions of individuals will be more attractive than one in which there is no such “human interest.”
Meaningfulness (news value)
This relates to the sense of identification the audience has with the topic. E.g. stories concerned with people who speak the same language, look the same, and share the same culture as the audience receive more coverage
Reference to elite nations (news value)
Stories concerned with global powers receive more attention than those concerned with less influential nations
Reference to elite persons (news value)
Stories concerned with the rich, powerful, famous and infamous get more coverage
Composition (news value)
When editors may seek to provide a balance of different types of coverage e.g. a balance of foreign and national news stories
Predictability (news value)
An event is more likely to be covered if it has been pre-scheduled. E.g. an important political summit
Hierarchy of credibility
Means journalists are more likely to trust or believe the views and opinions of those in positions of power, like government ministers and senior police officers. In contrast those without power e.g. protesters are less trusted
Primary Definers
Those individuals whose powerful position in society allows them better access to the media than those in other groups, and whose views, therefore are more likely to be transmitted by the media
Churnalism
The idea that most news journalism is second hand. According to Davies journalists don’t have much time & simply reproduce second hand information that is fed to them by the government and PR agencies.
PR
Stands for ‘public relations’. This industry deals with the professional maintenance of a favourable public image by a company or other organization or a famous person
Flat earth news
News with very little or no evidence to support its existence, often sensationalist/exaggerated
Representation
Describes the ways in which the media show the audience a version of the world. These are shaped, selected and edited to influence audience perceptions and are often highly distorted and biased
Media bias
When a media outlet reports a story in a partial or prejudiced manner
Under-representation
When something doesn’t appear in the media as often as in reality (also see ‘Symbolic annihilation)
Symbolic annihilation
A term used by Tuchman to describe the absence of representation, or underrepresentation, of some group of people in the media (often based on their ethnicity, sex, sexual orientation, social class, etc.)
Misrepresentation
Giving a false or misleading account of the nature of something
Stereotype
A widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing
Ethnic minority
A group within a society which has different national or cultural traditions from the main population
Colonialism
A world system in which European countries directly controlled much of Asia, Africa and Latin America in order to exploit their people and resources. Some negative representations of ethnic minorities have their origins in this system
Moral panic
A concept used by Stan Cohen that refers to the media’s ability to transform an event or social group into a threat to society (i.e. a ‘folk devil’) through sensationalist reporting of news
Folk devil
Those groups identified and demonised by the media through the sensational reporting of a moral panic
Othering
The process of perceiving or portraying someone or something as fundamentally different or alien.
Ethnocentrism
The belief that your culture is superior than another or that your culture is the “right” way to live. Media coverage of the cultural practices of ethnic minorities can reinforce this view
Asylum seekers
Refugees fleeing armed conflict or persecution
Migrants
People who choose to move countries not because of a direct threat of persecution or death, but mainly to improve their lives by finding work, or in some cases for education, family reunion, or other reasons
Islamophobia
Hatred or fear of Islam. Poole argues that this is fuelled by the way in which Muslims have been stereotyped in the western media as backward, extremist, fundamentalist and misogynist
Institutional Racism
The collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture, or ethnic origin
Racialised regime of representation
A term used by Sarita Malik to describe the way in which the media portrays ‘whiteness’ as the norm and blacks as different from others
Ghettoization
Marginalising issues to do with the experiences of ethnic minorities by scheduling them at times (i.e. very early or late) or on channels that ensure small audiences
Tokenism
A perfunctory or merely symbolic effort to show other ‘groups’ exist but they are ‘voiceless’ and lack autonomy. Used by media to create the illusion of real representation
Stigmatized identity
An identity that is in some way seen as abnormal, undesirable or demeaning, and which excludes people from full acceptance in society
Assimilation
The process whereby members of ethnic minority groups are encouraged or required to adopt the way of life, cultural values and identity of the majority
Burden of representation
The constraining expectation on ethnic minority artists, directors, actors, presenters and other public figures that they or their work will be taken to represent their entire ethnic group
Social class
A broad group of people (upper class, middle class & working class) who share a similar economic position in terms of things like occupation, income & wealth
Upper class
The wealthy property owning class who own & control major sections of business and who live off dividends from stocks and shares, land (e.g. rents) & inheritance. They are often represented in an eccentric, nostalgic or admiring way within the media
The Monarchy
Refers to those of Royal status. Nairn argues that after the WW2, with the collusion of the media, this group reinvented itself as a ‘Royal Family’ , not unlike our own families, who stood for national values such as ‘niceness’, ‘decency’ and ‘ordinariness’
Middle class
The social class which is situated between the upper and the working class. This has traditionally included most non-manual workers. Some argue that this group, and its concerns are over-represented in the media
The ‘cereal packet family’
Leech uses this phrase to describe how the middle class family is usually presented as the ‘ideal’ to which people should aspire in advertisements
Working class
Usually seen as the lowest class in capitalist societies & traditionally seen as being made up of those who earn wages through manual labour. Newman argues that the media depiction of this class is often either unflattering or pitying
Buffoon
A ridiculous but amusing person; a clown. This is a common working class stereotype in the media according to Newman
Glasgow University Media Group
A team of researchers who have investigated the content of the media from a Marxist perspective and concluded that the way news is reported supports capitalist interests and demonises the working class when they take political action (e.g. through strikes)
Strike
A form of industrial action that involves the temporary withdrawal of labour to express a grievance
Trade union
An organisation that aims to protect the pay, conditions and rights at work of workers. The media are often hostile towards these organisations particularly if they take strike action
‘Chav’
Shildrick & MacDoanld and Owen Jones argue that the media use this term to negatively label young poor people with stereotypical forms of appearance (e.g. tracksuits, bling)
Welfare state
Although particularly associated with the payment of benefits to the needy in the media, this term also refers to the government providing healthcare (NHS), education, housing, council houses and other social services
Underclass
A term that parts of the media use to describe some sections of the poor. According to media stereotypes this group allegedly socialises its children into deviant social values and behaviour
Patriarchy
Originally meant rule by a father, but in present-day sociology the term is used more broadly to mean rule of women by men
Cult of femininity
A term used by Ferguson to refer to the way in which women’s magazines promote a traditional ideal where excellence is achieved through caring for others, the family, marriage and appearance
Content analysis
A technique for systematically describing written, spoken or visual communication
Myth
A widely held but false belief or idea
Male gaze
A concept used by Laura Mulvey to refer to the way media representations are structured around a masculine viewer, so that women are objectified as sex objects, rather than being represented as full human beings
Scopophilia
The gaining of pleasure by subjecting others to a voyeuristic, objectifying gaze
Objectification
Treating a person as a commodity or an object without regard to their personality or dignity
Sexual objectification
The act of treating a person as an instrument of sexual pleasure
Binary opposition
A pair of related terms or concepts that are opposite in meaning usually with unequal value attached to one side of the pairing (e.g. masculinity and femininity)
Raunch culture
A term used by Andrea Levy to describe the increasingly sexualised culture that objectifies women (e.g. Music videos)
Social construction of gender roles
The idea that differences between men and women cannot be reduced to differences in biology and are instead created by society, including the media
Cosmeticisation
Where women are encouraged by the media to improve their appearance (also see ‘the beauty myth’)
Genderquake
The idea that there has been a fundamental change in women’s attitudes – which means that their aspirations have dramatically changed with education and career replacing marriage and family as priorities
Genre
A style or category of art, music, or literature
Hegemonic femininity
A term used to describe the dominant ideas about the role of women in society. E.g. traditionally females were culturally categorized primarily as home-makers, mothers and carers
‘The fighting fuck toy’
A phrase used by Knight to describe the sexual objectification of female action heroes (e.g. Lara Croft)
‘Cosmo effect’
McRobbie’s argument that many of the messages in women’s magazines such as Cosmopolitan are positive and empowering to young women
The beauty myth
An obsession with physical perfection that traps the modern woman in an endless spiral of hope, self-consciousness, and self-hatred as she tries to fulfil society’s impossible definition of “the flawless beauty” (Naomi Wolf)
Airbrushed photos
Where a model’s imperfections have been removed, or where their attributes have been enhanced
Mannequin image
Where the media presents women as if they were a dummy used to display clothes in a shop window: tall and thin, often size zero (Killbourne)
Post-feminist masquerade
Where media representations of women emphasise particular versions of independence, while simultaneously reinforcing elements of patriarchy
Patriarchal ideology
Ideas and beliefs that legitimate the domination of men and the subordination of women
Liberal feminist view of the media
This theory says that, although women are still ignored or trivialized by the media, this is happening to a lesser degree than in the past as the number of female journalists, editors and broadcasters increases
Marxist feminist view of the media
This theory argues that the roots of the stereotypical images of women in the media are economic. They are a by-product of the need of media conglomerates to make a profit.
Radical feminist view of the media
This theory argues that images are deliberately transmitted by male-dominated media to keep women oppressed into a narrow range of roles
Retributive masculinity
An attempt to reassert traditional masculine authority by celebrating traditionally male concerns in media content, i.e. ‘birds, booze and football’. This was reflected in the rise of ‘lads mags’ in the 1990s
Crisis of masculinity
The idea that men are having difficulty finding their role and masculine identity in contemporary society
Hegemonic masculinity
A term used to describe the dominant ideas about the role of men in society. i.e. ‘The provider, the protector and the impregnator’ (Gilmore)
Masculine myth
Easthope’s argument that a variety of media transmit a misleading view that masculinity based on strength, aggression, competition and violence is biologically determined and therefore, a natural goal for boys to achieve
Archetypal
Very typical of a certain kind of person or thing
‘The Joker’
An archetypal male character - perhaps because laughter is part of their own ‘mask of masculinity’
‘The Jock’
An archetypal male character who is always willing to compromise his own long term health; he might fight other men when necessary; he must avoid being soft; and he must be aggressive
‘The Strong Silent Type’
An archetypal male character who focuses on being in charge, acting decisively, and succeeding with women
‘The Big Shot’
An archetypal male character who is defined by his professional status. This stereotype suggests that a real man must be economically powerful and socially successful
‘The Action Hero’
An archetypal male character who is strong but not necessarily silent. Above all, he is aggressive in the extreme and, increasingly over the past several decades, he engages in violent behaviour
‘The Geek’
An archetypal male character who is represented as being weak and emotional and associated with feminine characteristics
Mask of masculinity
Kimmel’s argument that masculinity is a front, or a ruse which men play on the world. Men are pressured by other men and women to pretend that half of their identity (the feminine half) doesn’t exist.
Emasculate
Deprive (a man) of his male role or identity
The ‘new man’
A type of modern man who allows the caring side of his nature to show by being supportive and by sharing child care and housework
Metrosexual male
A term used to describe the rise in men’s fashion magazines, and the advertising and consumption of male toiletries and designer-label clothing for men
Female gaze
When a media text is presented from a female perspective or reflects female attitudes, either because of the creator’s gender or because it is deliberately aimed at a female audience
The male homosexual gaze
When the male body becomes the erotic object of another male look
Narcissism
The gaining of pleasure by gazing at and/or admiring one’s own image
Deviance
A failure to conform to social norms and values.
Crime
Behaviour which breaks the laws of a particular society & could result in actions taken by formal agencies of social control
Delinquency
A term frequently used to refer to relatively minor forms of criminal behaviour that are committed by young people
Youth subcultures
Distinctive groups of youths, within the wider youth culture, who stand out in terms of their style, dress, music taste and attitudes. They are often identified as folk devils by the media during a moral panic
Symbolic short-hands
Refers to the way in which the media use things like items of clothing, hairstyles, modes of transport etc. to stereotype and demonise certain groups as troublemakers (e.g. ‘hoodies)
Scapegoating
Blaming somebody for a problem in order to avoid dealing with the real issue
Deviancy amplification
A term coined by Leslie Wilkins to describe how agencies like the police and media can actually generate an increase in deviance, e.g. media coverage may glamourize certain forms of deviant behaviour
London riots
Between 6 and 11 August 2011, thousands of people rioted in several London boroughs and in cities and towns across England. In some sections of the media there was an attempt to blame gangs and ‘black street culture’ for these incidents
Divide and rule
The policy of maintaining control over one’s subordinates or opponents by encouraging dissent between them, thereby preventing them from uniting in opposition.
Ageism
Stereotyping and discriminating against individuals or groups on the basis of their age
A burden (old age stereotype)
Older people being represented as helpless and dependent on other younger members of the family or society
Grumpy (old age stereotype)
Older people being represented as conservative, stubborn and resistant to social change
Grey pound
This expression is used in the context of marketing and refers to the economic power of the elderly people. It is frequently used as a label for movies aimed at an older audience
Discourse
How we think and communicate about people, things, the social organization of society, and the relationships among and between all three
Sexuality
A person’s sexual orientation or preference
LGBT
An abbreviation for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender
Campness
One of the most widely used gay representations, found mainly in the entertainment media, e.g. Allan Carr, Julian Clary
Deviant (gay stereotype)
Where gays may be stereotyped as evil or as devious in television drama, as sexual predators or as people who feel tremendous guilt about their sexuality
Sexual diversity
This term conveys the idea that not all people are heterosexual. Some people are gay, lesbian, bisexual, queer, or questioning
The pink pound
This expression is used in the context of marketing and or and refers to the economic power of gay people
Disability
A physical or mental condition that limits a person’s movements, senses, or activities
Victims (disability stereotype)
Barnes found that when people with disabilities are featured in television drama, they are three times more likely than able-bodied characters to be killed off
In need of pity and charity (disability stereotype)
Barnes claims that this stereotype has grown in popularity in recent years because of television appeals such as Children In Need
Villains (disability stereotype)
People with disabilities are often portrayed as criminals or monsters, e.g. villains in James Bond films often have a physical impairment
Super-cripples (disability stereotype)
Barnes notes that people with disabilities are often portrayed as having special powers or as overcoming their impairment and poverty
Telethon
A very long television programme, typically one broadcast to raise money for a charity
Master status
When a single status is seen by the rest of the society to be more important than the rest of your statuses
Infantilisation of disabled people
Where disabled adults are represented as being childlike
Sanitization
To make more acceptable by removing unpleasant or undesired features
Audience effects theories
Theories that focus on the impact of the media on audiences e.g. Hypodermic syringe model, De-coding model etc.
Audience
A group of people who will receive a media text and make some sort of sense out of it
Propaganda
Information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view
Hypodermic Syringe Model
A theory which argues that the effect of the media on audiences is powerful, uniform, direct and immediate. This perspective therefore views audiences as passive and easily manipulated
Linear communication theories
Perspectives that see the media as a one-way form of communication that does not involve any feedback or response from the audience (e.g. Hypodermic Syringe Model)
Passive audience
An audience who do not actively engage with a media text and uncritically accept the meanings imposed on them by the media
The Bobo doll experiment
The collective name of experiments conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961 and 1963 when he studied children’s behaviour after watching an adult model act aggressively towards an inflatable toy
Copycat violence
A violent act that is modelled or inspired by a previous crime that has been reported in the media or described in fiction
Hidden persuader
Subconscious or subliminal (below the threshold of consciousness) message or advertisement that tries to influence the behaviour of the audience without their being aware of it.
Cultural effects model
This theory argues that the effects of the media on audiences mainly occur through gradual and continuous exposure and persuasion into acceptance of the dominant ideology (i.e. a ‘drip-feed’ level of influence). Also known as ‘Cultivation Theory’
Media and social control
Refers to the way in which people are manipulated and pressured to act and think in particular ways by the media
Two step flow model
A model of communication that suggests media influence on people is channelled and filtered by influential members of their community (‘opinion formers’)
Opinion leaders
These are those respected members of any social group who get information and form views from the media, who lead opinion and discussion in their social groups, and whom others listen to and take notice of
Active audience approaches
Theories that stress that the effects of the media are limited because people are not easily influenced (e.g. uses and gratifications model, de-coding model, pluralism)
Uses and gratifications model
A research approach focused on the active selection and use of the media by individuals in order to fulfil needs and achieve pleasure
Encoding
How producers of media texts weave their messages into the images or words that they use in order to get across messages to audiences. However, audiences to not necessarily decode the messages in the same way the producer intended
Decoding
How an audience member is able to understand, and interpret the message of a media text. Their interpretation may be different to the intended meaning encoded by the producer
Decoding model
This theory by Stuart Hall suggests that the content of the media is always capable of being decoded in a variety of ways. E.g. The way in which the news is interpreted may depend on, for the social and cultural backgrounds of different sections of the audience.(also known as the ‘Interactive approach’)
Preferred meaning
The meaning that the encoding of a media text is deemed to encourage. Also called the ‘dominant reading’
Negotiated meaning
An interpretation of a media text that modifies the intended reading so that it fits with the audience member’s own views. Also called a ‘Negotiated reading’
Oppositional meaning
An interpretation of a media text that rejects its intended reading. Also called an ‘oppositional reading’
Polysemic
Used to describe a sign (such as a media message, picture or headline) which can be interpreted in different ways by different people
Selective filtering
Refers to the way in which we filter what we read, see or hear in the media by selective exposure, selective perception and selective retention
Selective exposure
Means people may only watch or read media output that fits in with their existing views and interests
Selective perception
Means people will filter and interpret media output, so they only see or hear that which fits in with their own views and interests
Selective retention
Means people will ignore or forget media output that is not in line with their own views and interests
Globalisation
The process, in which media form a key component, whereby different parts of the world become intensively interconnected, in terms of trade, finance, politics, social life and culture
Satellite television
TV broadcast using a satellite to relay signals to appropriately equipped customers in a particular area
Internet
A global computer network providing a variety of information and communication facilities, consisting of interconnected networks using standardized communication protocols
Global village
Term coined by Marshall McLuhan to describe the effective shrinking of the globe as a result of increased international communication brought about by media technologies
Cultural globalisation
Refers to the transmission of ideas, meanings and values around the world in such a way as to extend social relations. This process is marked by the common consumption of cultures that have been diffused by the Internet, popular culture media, and international travel
Cultural imperialism
A critical interpretation of processes of globalisation that emphasizes the cultural domination of small countries by multinational companies distributing Western media and cultural products
Cultural homogenization
The idea that cultural differences are erased, with world cultures becoming increasingly the same. Often linked to the ideas of globalization and cultural imperialism
McDonaldization
Ritzer’s term for the ways in which the organizing principles of a fast-food restaurant chain are coming to dominate and standardize many aspects of economic and cultural life globally
Culture of hybridity
A culture that is a ‘mix’ of two or more other cultures, creating a new culture
Glocalisation
A mixing of cultures in which the local and global meet and produce a hybrid culture
Bollywood
A name for the Indian popular film industry, based in Mumbai
Culture jamming
Subverting the messages transmitted by large corporations about the desirability of their brand
Postmodernist view of the media
A sociological theory that examines the impact of living in a media saturated society on our identities and sense of reality
Media consumption
Refers to the way in which people use media products and the amount of time they spend on them e.g. hours spent watching TV, accessing the internet etc.
Information overload
Baudrillard’s argument that, rather than being enhanced by the proliferation of electronic media, meaning, understanding and substance are being drowned out by the ‘noise’ of the multiple media vying for our attention
‘Screenagers’
A term used to describe the current generation of young people who have grown up during the expansion of the internet and who have been immersed in a digital media environment
Lifestyle
The way in which people live, usually indicating something about their disposable income
Consumer identities
Aspects of our identities that come from the things that we buy and the images and status associated with them
Use value
The practical utility derived from consuming a good or service (e.g. clothes have the practical utility of keeping you warm)
Symbolic value
The idea that some consumption of goods and services, (e.g. designer goods), attaches prestige and status to the consumer and can be a way of projecting a particular identity
Brand
A name, term, design, symbol or other feature that distinguishes one seller’s product from those of others
Fragmentation
Implies a breaking up of once cohesive societies into a plurality of comparatively disconnected individuals and groups
Hyperreality
Is an inability of consciousness to distinguish reality from a simulation of reality due to the saturation of our lives by media messages. The division between reality and imaginary disappears
Simulacra
A term used by Baudrillard to refer to the meaningless images that, in his view, have saturated social and cultural life. Rather than referring to any sort of external reality or truth, these images refer only to one another
Virtual community
A term used to refer to a community that is primarily generated or sustained via Internet communication
High culture
Specialist cultural products, seen as of lasting artistic or literary value, which are particularly admired and approved of by intellectual elites and predominantly the upper and middle class
Formal content analysis
This is essentially a quantitative method which counts the frequency of particular words, images or themes in documents such as media texts
Semiology
An approach to the study of media contents which focuses on the connotations of media texts
Connotation
The emotional and imaginative association surrounding a word, image or sound
Audience research
An investigation of audience understanding of and response to media texts
