SY1 The Building Blocks/Theory Flashcards
Key terms for this unit
Society
A group of people who occupy a particular territory and who share a culture
Sociological imagination
“The vivid awareness of the relationship between personal experience and the wider society.” (C. Wright Mills)
Sociology
The study of how society is organized and how we experience life
Medicalisation
The process by which human conditions and problems come to be defined and treated as medical conditions
Social forces
Anything humans create that influences or pressures individuals to interact, behave, respond or think in certain ways
Fundamental attribution error
The tendency to favour personal explanations for an individual’s behaviour over social explanations.
Social institutions
The various organised social arrangements which are found in societies. For example: family types, the education system, religion, media, the political system, economy and so on (also known as ‘social structure’)
The ‘Structure’ and ‘Agency’ debate
The debate about whether individuals have ‘free will’ (agency) or are shaped and determined by social forces (structure)
Sociological concepts
The ideas sociologists use to make sense of society
Culture
The shared way of life of a group of people. It is a set of learned behaviours and beliefs that characterize a society or social group
Material culture
Physical objects that have cultural meaning
Non-material culture
Refers to the norms and values of a culture - i.e. beliefs, values and behaviours
Norms
Rules or informal guidelines about what is considered correct or incorrect social behaviour in a particular group or society
Values
General beliefs about what is right and wrong, and about the important standards which are worth maintaining and achieving in society
Mores
Norms that are more widely observed and have greater moral significance than others
Ethnocentrism
The belief that your culture is superior than another or that your culture is the “right” way to live.
Cultural relativism
The opposite of ethnocentrism: means that we respect other cultures and treat them as “as good as one’s own”.
Cultural diversity
The existence of a variety of cultural or ethnic groups within a society
Subculture
A distinctive culture that exists within the larger societal culture
Collectivist cultures
These are cultures which tend to emphasise belonging to the group as more important than personal freedom (e.g. Japan & China)
Individualistic cultures
These are cultures which tend to emphasise individual freedom and personal gain, sometimes at the expense of others (e.g. USA)
Social change
Refers to an alteration in the way in which society is ordered. This may lead to the development of new norms and values.
Custom
A traditional and widely accepted social norm that is specific to a particular society, place, or time
Role
Behavioural expectations based on the social positions an individual holds in society
Traditions
Long-established beliefs and customs that have been passed from one generation to the next
Socialisation
The process by which individuals learn and internalise their culture’s norms and values (Talcott Parsons). Also known as ‘cultural transmission’.
Primary socialisation
The first stage in the process of learning and internalising the culture of society. This usually involves the child learning from the immediate family in the home.
Secondary socialisation
This is the second stage of the socialisation process. It occurs after the period of early childhood and continues throughout adult life
Agents of socialisation
Any social group or institution that passes on cultural norms and values to others e.g. The Family, Media, School etc.
Focal agency
The agency of socialisation which, at various points in our lives is the most dominant
Formal socialisation
Is learning skills, norms and values with planned and organised experiences such as in school, work or the military
Informal socialisation
Learning skills, norms and values without a formal procedure
Habitus
The cultural framework and set of ideas possessed by each social class, into which people are socialised and which influences their tastes in music, newspapers, films etc.
Imitation
Copying behaviour (e.g. children learn social skills by watching and copying their parents)
Role models
People who are admired and imitated
The hidden curriculum
The set of beliefs and assumptions that are taught unintentionally by schools
Canalisation
Term used by Ann Oakley to describe the way in which parents direct boys and girls towards rehearsing their adult gender roles through play involving different sorts of toys
Verbal appellations
The use of language to label children in a way that reinforces traditional gender identification (e.g. ‘pet names’ applied to children according to gender)
Nature theories
The view that human behaviour is prompted by biology rather than society
Nurture theories
The view that society and culture are more important in shaping human behaviour than human genetics and instincts
Feral children
A ‘wild’ child. Someone who has not been socialised into the culture of their society
Gender roles
A set of societal norms dictating what types of behaviours are generally considered acceptable, appropriate or desirable for a person based on their sex
Social control
The processes by which society ensures that people conform to its culture, and the mechanisms by which it deals with deviance.
Formal social control
Official means of dealing with deviance – usually focused on legal rules. This involves the criminal justice system (the police, courts prison etc.)
Informal social control
Unofficial means of dealing with deviance – usually dealing with “unwritten” rules. This involves various agencies of socialisation (e.g. families, schools, the media etc.)
Conformity
Behaving or thinking as others do
Deviance
A failure to conform to social norms and values
Sanctions
Reactions to behaviour designed to either reinforce the behaviour or stop it from happening again
Positive sanctions
Sanctions that reinforce good behaviour through things like praise and rewards
Negative sanctions
Sanctions that involve a punishment of some kind
The panopticon
A term used by Foucault to describe the way in which social control is increasingly based on surveillance (e.g. the use of CCTV cameras)
Social order
Refers to a stable state of society in which the existing society is accepted and maintained by its members
State of nature
A concept in political philosophy to denote the hypothetical conditions of what the lives of people might have been like before stable and orderly societies came into existence. Hobbes believed that without social order there would be constant conflict
Peer groups
Those people who are of a similar social status (e.g. the same age group or job)
Status
Refers to the social positions individuals hold and the amount of prestige or importance a person has in the eyes of other members of society
Social hierarchy
Refers to the ranking of people within a social group and therefore certain individuals having a higher status
Ascribed status
The social status a person is assigned at birth or assumed involuntarily later in life. It is a position that is neither earned nor chosen but assigned.
Achieved status
Denoting a social position that a person can acquire on the basis of merit; it is a position that is earned or chosen. It reflects personal skills, abilities, and efforts.
Meritocracy
A society where people’s social positions are based on achieved status. People advance in society on the basis of hard work and effort
Status set
Refers to the multiple social positions an individual holds in life (e.g. Mother, Sister, Teacher, etc.)
Master status
When a single status is seen by the rest of the society to be more important than the rest of your statuses
Status anxiety
Worrying about our standing in the world, whether we’re going up or down, whether we’re winners or losers
Consumerism
The pressure that society puts on individuals to purchase goods and service for money in ever increasing amounts
Status frustration
A term used by Albert Cohen to describe the anger and frustration that people might experience as a result of their inability to gain high statuses. This can manifest itself in delinquency and deviant subcultural activity
Deviant (delinquent) subcultures
Groups that take their norms from the larger culture but turn them upside down (i.e. bad behaviour becomes good in the eyes of the group)
Power
The capacity to get your own way in society.
Counter power
Term used to describe attempts to socially resist powerful groups. (Manuel Castells)
Coercion
Power arising from force or the threat of force. (Weber)
Authority
Legitimate power based on consent, where people voluntarily submit to the will of others. (Weber)
Legitimacy
Where power becomes authority. People see existing power structures as right and acceptable
Charismatic authority
Authority derived from the power of the personality and persuasiveness of leaders. (Weber)
Traditional authority
Authority derived from a belief in long-standing customs. (Weber)
Legal rational authority
Authority based on laws, rules and regulations
Decision making
The power to make, influence and implement decisions which affect other people.(Lukes)
Agenda management
The power to set agendas and therefore limit what’s being discussed. Also called ‘non-decision making’ (Lukes)
Wish manipulation
The power to shape people’s minds i.e. ‘ideological power’ (Lukes)
Social inequality
Refers to the uneven distribution of resources such as money and power and how opportunities related to education, employment and health are also skewed
Life chances
The opportunities to acquire material, social and cultural rewards e.g. education, jobs, income, wealth, standard of living etc., that members of society can expect
Social differentiation
The distinction made between social groups and persons on the basis of biological, physiological, and social factors, as gender, age, social class or ethnicity.
Income
Refers to an amount of money earned in a certain period
Wealth
Refers to the value of money and other assets owned (e.g. land, property, stocks and shares)
Stratification
Refers to the division of society into a pattern of layers made up of a hierarchy of unequal groups based on factors such as social class, gender and ethnicity
Social class
A group of people in society who share a similar economic position in terms of things like occupation, income and wealth
Gender
A term used by sociologists to describe the cultural and social attributes of males and females
Ethnicity
A socially defined category of people who identify with each other based on common ancestral, social, cultural or national experience
Social mobility
Movement up and down the stratification system
Closed stratification system
A form of stratification where social mobility is not usually possible (i.e. one based on ascribed status)
Open stratification system
A more meritocratic form of stratification where social mobility is possible
Caste system
The hereditary stratification system of India. It is associated with the Hindu religion that ranks individuals at birth in a hierarchical fashion according to their religious purity
Endogamy
The practice of marrying within a specific ethnic group, class, or social group, rejecting others on such a basis as being unsuitable for marriage or for other close personal relationships
Absolute poverty
A state in which people lack the minimum resources required for health and working efficiency, such as food, water, clothing and shelter
Relative poverty
Lacking the resources to enjoy the living standards that the mass of society take for granted
Identity
Refers to an image we have of ourselves – literally ‘who we think we are’
Social identities
Aspects of our identity that we have in common with lots of other people
Personal identities
Aspects of our identity that separate us and mark us out from others
Consumer identities
Aspects of our identities that come from the things that we buy and the images and status associated with them
Gender identity
Refers to how people see themselves, and how others see them, in terms of their gender roles and biological sex
Class identity
Refers to how people see themselves, and how others see them, in terms of their social class background
Age identity
Refers to how people see themselves, and how others see them, in terms of their age and generation
Ethnic identity
One where individuals assert their identity in terms of the ethnic group and culture to which they belong
Nation
A particular geographical area with which a group of people identify, and share among themselves a sense of belonging based on a common sense of culture, history and usually language
Nation state
A nation which has its own independent government controlling a geographical area
Nationality
Having citizenship of a nation-state, including things like voting rights, a passport, and the right of residence
Nationalism
Involves a sense of pride and commitment to a nation, and a very strong sense of national identity
Extreme nationalism
Versions of nationalism that exclude certain groups, defining the national community in ethnic, linguistic, cultural, historic, or religious terms (or a combination of these)
Looking glass self
Cooley’s idea that we see ourselves as we think others see us
Self fulfilling prophecy
A prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true. E.g. when a teacher labels a student as ‘clever’.
Sociological theory
Overarching ideas about why the social world behaves in certain ways
Macro sociology
The study of large-scale social phenomena - whole societies, historical change etc.
Micro sociology
The study of small-scale phenomena such as school classrooms, small work groups and interaction within families
Structural theories
Theories which emphasise the ways in which society shapes and moulds the behaviour of individuals within it (people are the ‘puppets’ of social forces)
Agency theories
Theories which emphasise the ways in which individuals actively create society out of their everyday interactions (also known as ‘social action’ theories)
Consensus theories
Theories which argue that the current social system benefits all members of society – and that continued social order is in our best interests
Conflict theories
Theories which argue that society is structured in a way that benefits certain social groups at the expense of others
Functionalism
This theory contends that the main task of sociology is to identify the functions that any group, institution or practice performs for society as a whole
Social structure
Particular features of society that constrain people from doing things or force them into doing other things (e.g. roles, norms, legal frameworks etc.)
Value consensus
A functionalist idea which suggests that the role of agencies of socialisation is to transmit shared norms and values which is the basis of social order
Organic analogy
The idea that society can be compared to a living organism. Society is seen as a functioning entity with an existence of its own, but composed of many parts which contribute to the well-being of the whole
Role allocation
The functionalist idea that one of the main functions of the education system is to sift and sort individuals into their future occupational roles based on merit
Function
The job (or role) that a group, institution or activity does for wider society, and in particular its contribution to the maintenance and continuation of social arrangements
Functional prerequisites
These are the basic needs that society must have fulfilled if it is to continue to exist
Adaptation
One of Parson’s functional prerequisites. It refers to how societies (particularly their economic systems) adapt to their physical environment.
Goal attainment
One of Parson’s functional prerequisites, this relates to the achieving of the society’s aims, and in practical terms refers to political institutions such as the Government and Parliament
Integration
One of Parson’s functional prerequisites, it relates to the ways in which society needs to bind its members together as a unified whole thereby promoting social solidarity
Latency
Also known as pattern maintenance, it is one of Parson’s functional prerequisites and relates to the ways societies seek to ensure commitment to the values of the society and to control those who might challenge those values
Social solidarity
The unification of diverse groups so that they feel a common sense of mutual interests, community, social integration and a strong sense of belonging to society
Equilibrium
A state of balance between the different parts of the society. The Functionalist idea is that when there is a change in the social environment which alters the balance there is an automatic process which seeks to restore the lost balance
Evolutionary theories
Explanations in sociology which were heavily influenced by the theory of evolution put forward by the biologist Charles Darwin
Manifest function
The intended function of a social institution, such as the transmission of knowledge in education
Latent function
An unintended function or consequence of a social institution as opposed to one that was intended
Social system
A term used to describe a whole society or an important part of society such as the economic system, political system, education system etc.
Marxism
A theory which argues that there is a conflict of interest in capitalist societies between those who own the means of producing wealth and those who only have their labour power to sell
Economy
The way in which societies make money and use goods and labour
Capitalism
An economy where most of the production of goods and services is initiated & undertaken by private companies who aim to generate profit from this activity. Most work is performed by individuals who work for someone else in return for money
Materialist theories
Theories such as Marxism which argue that economic factors, such as technology and the organisation of work, shape the rest of society
Mode of production
The Marxist term for a type of economy (economic structure) or way of producing goods and wealth. Marxists argue that every economic system, with the exception of communism, is based upon one dominant class exploiting the labour of a subordinate one
Means of production
The key resources (such as land, factories, raw materials, and machinery) needed to produce society’s goods and services
Relations of production
The relationships between those involved in production, such as shared ownership or private ownership, who controls production, and the relationship between owners and workers, e.g. whether people are forced to work, like slaves, or paid for their work
Economic base
The Marxist idea that the economy is the foundation on which any society is based upon. This is also known as the ‘infrastructure’ and Marxists argue that this shapes and influences over institutions and social processes
Superstructure
A Marxist term for society’s social institutions, such as the family, education, the mass media, religion and the political system, and beliefs and values (ideology), which Marx saw as primarily determined (or influenced) by the economic base
Labour power
Refers to people’s capacity to work. In capitalist societies people sell this capacity to employers in return for a wage
Bourgeoisie
The Marxist term for the ruling class who own the means of production in capitalist societies. Also known as ‘capitalists’ or the ‘ruling class’
Proletariat
The Marxist term for the social class of workers who have to sell their labour power as they do not own the means of production
Exploitation
The appropriation of the skills and labour of less powerful groups without rewarding them
The labour theory of value
The idea that the value of any commodity is ultimately derived from the labour used to create it. Marxists argue that within capitalism workers are paid a small fraction of what their labour power is really worth
Commodity
Anything that is bought and sold for money
Surplus value
The difference between the value produced by a person’s labour and what the worker is paid by the employer. The difference is appropriated as profit by the capitalist employer
Repressive state apparatus
A term used by Althusser to describe those parts of the state which are concerned with mainly coercive means of keeping a population in line, such as the army, police, courts and prison
Ideological state apparatuses
A term used by Althusser to describe the agencies that spread the dominant ideology and justify the power of the dominant social class
Ideological power
The ability to shape people’s minds in terms that favour the interests of the power holders
‘Opium of the people’
A phrase Marx used in relation to the ideological role of religion in society. According to this analogy religion is like a drug which creates illusions and soothes the pain of exploitation
False consciousness
A lack of awareness among people about what their real interests are, and the false belief that everyone benefits from a capitalist society which is presented as fair and just
Class consciousness
An awareness among members of a social class of their real interests
Revolution
A forcible overthrow of a government or social order, in favour of a new system. Marxists believe in the overthrow of capitalism and replacing it with communism
Communism
An equal society in which the means of production are owned by all the people. However these ideals have been very difficult to put into practice and societies purporting to follow these ideas have often been extremely repressive
Polarisation
A Marxist concept that describes the process of the capitalist class getting richer and the proletariat getting poorer
Alienation
A feeling of disconnection between what you do all day as a worker and who you feel you really are and what you feel you would be ideally able to contribute to society
Feminism
A body of theory and a social movement dedicated to ending the oppression of women and their subordination to men
Patriarchy
Originally meant rule by a father, but in present-day sociology the term is used more broadly to mean rule of women by men
Sexism
Treating people differently depending on their biological sex
Malestream sociology
The feminist idea that within sociology the mainstream way of looking at social issues has focused on men to the exclusion of women
Raunch culture
A term used by Andrea Levy to describe the increasingly sexualised culture that objectifies women (e.g. Music videos)
Sex
Refers to the biological differences between males and females
Gender
Refers to masculine and feminine characteristics that are cultural and acquired through socialisation
Femininity
Characteristics that are associated with women, which are likely to include dress, speech, types of jobs and family roles
Masculinity
Characteristics that are associated with men, which are likely to include dress, speech, types of jobs and family roles
Essentialism
This is the belief that feminine and masculine characteristics express men’s and women’s biological natures
Social construction of gender roles
The idea that differences between men and women cannot be reduced to differences in biology and are instead created by society (the opposite of essentialism). Gender roles therefore vary according to both time and place
First wave feminism
A feminist movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries whose principal aims were political and legal equality for women
Second wave feminism
A feminist movement which dates from the 1960s and has been concerned to achieve equality in education, employment, family life, and to claim for women control over their own bodies and fertility
Liberal feminism
The mainstream, reformist version of feminism which argues for the creation of equal opportunities for women guaranteed by the law (e.g. equal pay). It believes that women should be able to compete with men equally in all spheres of life
Marxist feminism
A feminist perspective which sees gender inequalities as a product of capitalism
Domestic labour
Refers to all work concerned with maintaining the household (e.g. housework, childcare and emotional labour)
Domestic labour theory
The Marxist feminist idea that the domestic labour of women maintains the health and efficiency of the workforce and reproduces the future work force at no extra cost to the capitalist class
Reserve army of labour
A Marxist feminist idea which suggests that women are only brought into the labour force in times of economic boom, when demand for workers rises, and are the first group to be discarded when the economy stops growing
Radical feminism
A revolutionary form of feminism which blames the exploitation of women on men and patriarchy. It highlights how men dominate women by violence and the threat of violence, such as rape, domestic abuse & pornography
UK Feminista
A relatively recent group which supports people to campaign for a world where women and men are equal
‘The personal is political’
A feminist slogan which refers to the need for feminists to challenge traditional family values
Gendercide
Refers to the ‘missing women’ phenomenon. There are perhaps 200 million ‘missing women’ in the global population, some not born, some dying of cumulative neglect
Interactionism
A micro-theory which argues that we need to analyse how individuals interpret reality in order to understand social action
Social action
Action affected by the existence of others, involving the understanding and interpreting of their behaviour
Meaning
The beliefs, intentions, purposes or motives which people attach to their actions
Sign
Anything that stands for something else (e.g. words and language)
Self
An individual’s sense of his or her own identity
Taking the role of the other
Our ability to step outside ourselves and see the results of our actions as if it were someone else. Language enables us to have this inner conversation with ourselves
Social construction of reality
The idea that many of the things we take as ‘fact’ are in actuality a product of the different meanings which have been attached to people and events
Labelling theory
The idea that categorizing or stereotyping individuals or groups can seriously affect their behaviour and sense of self
Stigma
A particularly negative social label that affects how you view yourself and how others view you
Stigmatisation
The process whereby individuals are labelled with some marginalising characteristic such as ‘deviant’ ‘mad’ etc. These individuals may be prevented from being fully accepted in society.
Dramaturgical analogy
The approach used by Erving Goffman to compare social life to a piece of theatre.
Social actors
Interactionist jargon for ‘people’
Impression management
How social actors try to guide and control how others interpret their behaviour
Front stage
Behaviour that is visible to the audience and is the impression the actor wants to get across about themselves
Back stage
Behaviour that is hidden from the audience for the sake of successful impression management
Mask of masculinity
Kimmel’s argument that masculinity is a front, or a ruse which men play on the world. Men are pressured by other men and women to pretend that half of their identity (the feminine half) doesn’t exist.
Primary deviance
The first act of rule-breaking that may receive a deviant or negative label and thus influence how people think about and act toward you
Secondary deviance
Subsequent acts of rule-breaking that occur after primary deviance and as a result of your new deviant label, the stigma attached to it, and people’s expectations of you.
Postmodernism
A perspective which argues that society is changing rapidly and that it is marked by greater choice & uncertainty. According to this view the pace of change renders many conventional sociological approaches as old fashioned or even obsolete
Epoch
A particular period of history
Pre-modern society
An agriculturally based society based on tradition and understanding themselves through myths, superstition and religion
The Enlightenment
An intellectual and scientific movement of 18th century Europe which was characterized by a rational and scientific approach to social, political, and economic issues. This movement gave birth to ‘modernity’
Modernity
The period from the mid-eighteenth-century European Enlightenment to at least the late 20th C. A period in which traditional ways of thinking (e.g. religion) began to be questioned and replaced by science, rational thought and belief in progress
Postmodernity
An era after modernity which some writers claim we are in. This period is seen as diverse and moving in many directions
Individualisation
The idea that people are increasingly seeing themselves as individuals rather than members of a social group. People are individuals choosing their own identities rather than having their lives structured by membership of social groups
Fragmentation
Implies a breaking up of once cohesive societies into a plurality of comparatively disconnected individuals and groups
Fluidity
Social or cultural instability, changeability or ephemerality
Ephemeral
Temporary or subject to constant change
Hybrid identities
These are formed from mixing aspects of two or more identities thereby creating a new identity. Such identities tend to be created within a society that is culturally diverse
Media saturation
The idea that we live in a society where we are being constantly bombarded by messages and images from the media
Consumption
The way in which individuals use goods and services
Use value
The practical utility derived from consuming a good or service (e.g. clothes have the practical utility of keeping you warm)
Symbolic value
The idea that some consumption of goods and services, (e.g. designer goods), attaches prestige and status to the consumer and can be a way of projecting a particular identity
Brand
A name, term, design, symbol or other feature that distinguishes one seller’s product from those of others
Grand narratives (Metanarratives)
Broad overarching theories which try to explain how society works and the nature of social change e.g. Marxism and functionalism
Relativism
The doctrine that knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to culture, society, or historical context, and are not absolute.
Fragmentation of gender roles
The idea that there are now a multitude of different masculine and feminine identities to choose from leading to a blurring of gender roles
Binary opposition
A pair of related terms or concepts that are opposite in meaning
Globalisation
The name used to describe the ways in which the boundaries between different societies have been eroded
Cosmopolitanism
A kind of openness and tolerance to cultural differences
Fundamentalisms
Views which assert there is only one way to live, and usually provide an authority (often religious) from the past
Multiculturalism
A concept that highlights the diversity both between different cultures like India or the UK whilst also recognising the massive differences of language, religion and life style within a country
