SY1 Youth Cultures Flashcards
Key terms for this unit
Youth
The period between childhood and adulthood
Adolescence
A term first used by Stanley Hall in 1904 to describe the period of physical and psychological development from the onset of puberty to maturity
Chronological age
Age in years
‘Storm and stress’
A phrase associated with the idea that adolescence is often regarded as a turbulent life phase where puberty causes angst and aggression. This view was challenged by Mead’s research on adolescent girls in Western Samoa
Social construction of youth
The idea that youth is affected by social and cultural factors and will therefore be experienced in different ways depending on the society you grow up in
Liminal
A term used to describe the transitional nature of youth where people are ‘in-betweeners’ i.e. neither children or adults
Traditional societies
Non-modern (pre-industrial) societies
Western societies
Europe, The Americas, Australia and New Zealand
Industrialisation
The process whereby a society moves from a predominantly agricultural base to one where the economy is dominated by manufacturing (based on mechanised mass production)
Child labour
Refers to the employment of children. As children were quickly absorbed into the adult world of work in the 19th C this meant the idea of youth as a separate social category didn’t exist at this time
Legislation
This term refers to laws. The legal prohibition of child labour created more leisure opportunities for the young and the space for a youth culture to develop
Teenager
A term used after WW2 to describe youth in the USA
Tweenager
A relatively new term used to describe children of about 7-12. This term implies that ‘youth’ is beginning earlier than the teenage years with children focusing on pop culture and adult celebrities at a younger age than before
‘Disappearance of childhood’
Postman uses this phrase when blaming the media for exposing children to the adult world too young and sexualising them. The term ‘tweenager’ is connected to this argument
Mainstream culture
The way of life that most people follow or that is considered ‘normal’. A key debate within the Sociology of Youth Culture is the extent to which youth cultures are different from this ‘normal culture’
Youth culture
A term used to describe the beliefs, behaviours, styles, and interests of young people. An emphasis on clothes, popular music, sports, slang, and dating set adolescents apart from other age groups, giving them what many believe is a distinct culture of their own
Youth subcultures
Distinctive groups of youths, within the wider youth culture, who stand out in terms of their style, dress, music taste and attitudes
Spectacular youth subcultures
This is a term that has been used to describe some of the most highly visible subcultures of the 1950s-80s e.g. Teddy Boys, punks, skinheads. They had flamboyant and recognisable styles and often had confrontational attitudes
Argot
Slang and patterns of speech only understood by the members of that culture
Post war affluence
This refers to young people becoming richer and having more money to spend after WW2. Big business realized the opportunity to market new products specifically aimed at young people, such as records, clothes, cosmetics, magazines and entertainment
Demographic bulge
This refers to people born during the post–World War II baby boom
Generation
All of the people born and living at about the same time, regarded collectively
Generation gap
When the norms and attitudes of the young are diverging from those of their parents’ generation
Counter-cultures
Groups which are actively opposed to some of the aspects of the mainstream culture. E.g., subcultures that present proposals as to how society ought to be organised that contrast with existing social arrangements. (e.g. hippies)
Teddy Boys
A working class subculture typified by young men wearing clothes that were partly inspired by the styles worn by dandies in the Edwardian period
Mods
Significant elements of this subculture include fashion (often tailor-made suits); music (including soul, ska, and R&B and originally modern jazz); and motor scooters (usually Lambretta or Vespa)
Hippies
A counterculture that started in the United States and United Kingdom during the mid-1960s. They created their own communities, listened to psychedelic music, embraced the sexual revolution, and used drugs to explore altered states of consciousness
Skinheads
A subculture that originated among working class youths in London, England, in the 1960s. Named for their close-cropped or shaven heads.
Punks
A subculture that emerged during the mid to the late 70s, associated with bands such as the Sex Pistols and The Clash. Common values include anti-authoritarianism, a DIY ethic and non-conformity
Goths
Styles of dress within this subculture are associated with dark attire (often black), pale face makeup and black hair. The scene continues to draw interest from a large audience decades after its emergence.
Functionalist view of youth cultures
Sees youth as an important transitional stage during a potentially stressful time where an individual must learn to leave the security of the family. As they seek independence youth culture becomes important providing a shared set of norms & values with peers & a sense of belonging
Transition
The process or a period of changing from one state or condition to another
Rite of passage
A ceremony or event marking an important stage in someone’s life, especially birth, the transition from childhood to adulthood, marriage, and death
Ethnocentrism
A view of the world in which other cultures are seen through the eyes of one’s own culture with a devaluing of the others
‘The death of childhood’
The beginning of a traditional rites of passage ceremony where young people are separated from their family
‘Rebirth into adulthood’
The end of a traditional rites of passage ceremony where young people are given a new status as adults in their community
Social integration
Where people feel a sense of belonging to a group such as a youth culture
Peer group
A group of people of approximately the same age, status, and interests
A state of limbo
An in-between, liminal stage
Ascribed status
The social status a person is assigned at birth or assumed involuntarily later in life. It is a position that is neither earned nor chosen but assigned.
Achieved status
Denoting a social position that a person can acquire on the basis of merit; it is a position that is earned or chosen. It reflects personal skills, abilities, and efforts
Agents of socialisation
These are the people, groups or institutions responsible for our socialization e.g. the peer group
Function
The job (or role) that a group, institution or activity does for wider society, and in particular its contribution to the maintenance and continuation of social arrangements
Liquid modernity
The term that Bauman uses for contemporary society - where there are fewer certainties and nothing can be taken for granted. Young people may find the transition into adulthood increasingly difficult, drawn out and non-linear under these conditions
Boomerang children
Adult children returning to their parents’ home after a period away living independently
Contemporary society
Refers to society in existence at the present time
Marxist view of youth cultures
This theory have focused on how post war working class youth subcultures (e.g. Teddy Boys, Skinheads, Punks) can be interpreted as a form of cultural resistance against capitalism & the class system
Cultural resistance
Refusing to conform to the dominant norms and values of society
Swing kids
A group of jazz and swing lovers in Germany in the 1930s. They admired the British and American way of life, defining themselves in swing music and opposing the Nazi ideology, especially the Hitler Youth
The Russian Hipsters
In Russia during WW2 a group of young people who dressed in bright colours and listened to forbidden rock and roll music to resist the conformity of communism
Capitalism
An economic system associated with modern societies, based on private ownership of businesses. Marxists argue that it is an exploitative system
Ideological state apparatus
Refers to agencies, such as education and the media, which spread the ideology of the ruling class and justify their dominance
Hegemony
A situation in which the ideas of the ruling class are presented in such a way that they are accepted by other classes as ‘common sense’
Class divisions
Term describing how society is divided into groups based on economic inequalities
Working class
Usually seen as the lowest class in capitalist societies & traditionally seen as being made up of those who earn wages through manual labour
CCCS
Stands for the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies. A group of sociologists at Birmingham University who used Marxism and semiotics to study spectacular working class youth sub-cultures
Semiotic analysis of youth cultures
Involves decoding (interpreting) sub-cultural elements, for example dress or hairstyle, in order to understand their underlying meaning
‘Magical’ solutions
Brake’s argument that although youth subcultures appear to offer a solution to the plight of working class youth – in fact this is merely an illusion (as most magic tricks are)
Resistance through rituals
A symbolic protest against social injustice in the form of styles that are different from, and opposed to those of the majority. E.g. the aggressively masculine behaviour of skinheads was interpreted as a defence of traditional working class male lifestyles
Marginalisation of the working class
Making working class people feel isolated and unimportant. The Skinhead subculture was interpreted by Cohen as a way for working class youth to culturally resist this by adopting an overtly working class style
Bricolage
Taking different objects from society and giving them new meanings and creating a new culture around these meanings (e.g. punks turning safety pins and bin liners into jewelry and clothing)
DIY ethic
The ‘Do it Yourself’ ethos of the punk subculture. An anti-consumerist approach where punks created their own independent record labels, made their own clothes and created their own fanzines
DIY media
Amateur and usually small-scale forms of media. E.g. fanzines
Fanzine
A magazine, usually produced by amateurs, for fans of a particular performer, group, or form of entertainment
Anti-consumerism
Being opposed to the continual buying and consuming of material possessions
Body art
Things like piercings and tattoos
Homology
A term used by Hebdige to describe the cultural beliefs, practices and forms that bind members of a youth culture together as a group
Incorporation
Where an initially shocking or edgy style becomes commercialised, watered down and sold back to young people as part of mainstream consumer culture
Ordinary youth (conventional youth)
The majority of youth who enjoy many of the pursuits of youth culture but do not fit into any particular subculture
Youth cultural style
The fashion, music and slang associated with a youth culture
Alienated youth
Young people who have withdrawn or are separated from the values of their society or family
Ethnicity
A social group that shares a common and distinctive culture, religion, language, or the like
Ethnic minority
A group within a society which has different national or cultural traditions from the main population
Ethnic identity
One where individuals assert their identity in terms of the ethnic group and culture to which they belong
Colonialism
The policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically
Afro-Caribbean
A person of African descent living in or coming from the Caribbean (e.g. Jamaica)
Empire Windrush
A passenger liner and cruise ship best remembered today for bringing one of the first large groups of post-war Afro-Caribbean immigrants to the United Kingdom in 1948
Immigration
The action of coming to live permanently in a foreign country
Racism
Prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against someone of a different ‘race’ based on the belief that one’s own ‘race’ is superior
Ska
A music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1950s and was the precursor to reggae
Reggae
A music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1960s. It is slower than ska and gained international recognition with the commercial success of Bob Marley
Roots reggae
A subgenre of reggae that deals with lyrical themes including spirituality and religion (Rastafari) poverty, black pride, social issues, resistance to government and racial oppression, and repatriation to Africa.
Rastafari
A religious cult, originally of Jamaica, that regards Africa as the Promised Land, to which all true believers will someday return, and the late Haile Selassie I, former emperor of Ethiopia, as the messiah
Dreadlocks
A Rastafarian hairstyle in which the hair is washed but not combed and twisted while wet into tight braids or ringlets hanging down on all sides
Rasta style
A black youth cultural style that evolved in part to resist racism in the 1970s. The style revolved around dreadlocks, Ethiopian colours (red, green and gold) and reggae music
Black pride
A movement encouraging people to take pride in being black
Afrocentric
Regarding African or black culture as pre-eminent
Babylon
A pejorative term used within rasta culture to describe the white western culture of consumerism and materialism
Materialism
A tendency to consider material possessions and physical comfort as more important than spiritual values
‘Rebel generation’
A term used by Linton Kwesi Johnson to describe black youths in the 1970s who refused to tolerate the racism that their parents had tolerated in the 1950s/60s when they first arrived in Britain
Anti-colonialism
A term that may be applied to a movement opposed to any form of colonialism
Rude boy
A subculture which arose from the poorer sections of Kingston, Jamaica, and was associated with violent discontented youth. They favoured sharp suits, thin ties, and pork pie or Trilby hats
Sus law
The informal name for a stop and search law that permitted a police officer to stop, search and potentially arrest people on suspicion of them being in breach of section 4 of the Vagrancy Act 1824
Cultural assimilation
The process by which the culture of an ethnic minority comes to resemble those of the majority. This process is often resisted by ethnic minority youth cultures
Anti-racism
The policy or practice of opposing racism and promoting racial tolerance
Dancehall
A genre of Jamaican popular music that originated in the late 1970s and was very popular throughout the 80s
Hip-hop
A style of music usually based on rap and often including elements of other styles such as funk or rhythm and blues
Gangsta Rap
A sub-genre within rap music which glamourises lawless behaviour and violent lifestyles
Jungle
A style of dance music incorporating elements of dancehall and hip hop consisting of very fast electronic drum tracks and slower synthesized bass lines, originating in Britain in the early 1990s during the ‘rave scene’
Bhangra
A blend of Punjabi folk music with Western dance beats popular among some Asians in Britain
Grime
A genre of music that emerged in England in the early 2000s. Pioneers of this stylized music include Dizzee Rascal, Durrty Goodz, Ghetts, Jammer, Kano, Lethal Bizzle, Skepta, and Wiley
MC
Short for master of ceremonies or mic controller. Essentially a word for a rapper but the term is not limited to hip hop
‘White wannabes’
A term used by Nayak to describe young white working-class males who adopt the style and language of ‘black culture’
Asian
A native of Asia or a person of Asian descent
Brasian
A term used to describe a fusion of British & Asian styles (i.e. an example of cultural hybridity)
Hyper-ethnic style
A term used by Johal to suggest that some British Asians have adopted an exaggerated form of their parent culture
Code-switching
A term used by Johal to describe the way in which young Asians move between one cultural form and another, depending on context and whether overt ‘Britishness’ or pronounced ‘Asianness’ is most appropriate
Cultural appropriation
Taking aspects of other ethnic cultures into white subcultures
Gender
Refers to masculine and feminine characteristics that are cultural and acquired through socialisation
Femininity
Characteristics that are associated with women, which are likely to include dress, speech, types of jobs and family roles
Masculinity
Characteristics that are associated with men, which are likely to include dress, speech, types of jobs and family roles
Hypermasculinity
A term for the exaggeration of male stereotypical behaviour, such as an emphasis on physical strength, aggression, and sexuality
Feminism
A body of theory and a social movement dedicated to ending the oppression of women and their subordination to men
Patriarchy
Originally meant rule by a father, but in present-day sociology the term is used more broadly to mean rule of women by men
Malestream sociology
The feminist idea that within sociology the mainstream way of looking at social issues (e.g. youth cultures) has focused on men to the exclusion of women
‘Invisible girls’
Christine Griffin’s argument that much of the sociology of youth cultures has been almost exclusively concerned with males: women and girls – as in much traditional sociology – are not present
Teddy Girls
These were small groups of girls who identified with Teddy Boy culture
Bedroom culture
A female youth subculture identified by McRobbie & Garber which involves girls spending time in their bedrooms, often in pairs, rather than in gangs on the street. This allows girls to create a personal and autonomous area
Teenybopper
A young teenage girl who follows highly commercialized adolescent trends in music, fashion and culture
Ladette
The female counterpart of ‘the lad’
Riot Grrrl
An underground feminist hardcore punk movement that originally started in the early 1990s, in the USA. It is a subcultural movement that combines feminist consciousness and punk style and politics
‘Girl power’
This term is used as a term of female empowerment, independence, and self-sureness. It was made popular by the Spice Girls in the mid-to-late 1990s
Gender convergence
Where the roles of men and women in society are becoming more similar
Gender-bending
A term that describes people who blur the lines between gendered identities
Crisis of masculinity
An insecurity and uncertainty about masculine identity and roles
Androgynous
Neither clearly masculine nor clearly feminine in appearance
Misogyny
The hatred or dislike of women or girls. This can be manifested in numerous ways, including sexual discrimination, belittling of women, violence against women, and sexual objectification of women.
Postmodernism
A perspective which argues that society is changing rapidly and that it is marked by greater choice & uncertainty. According to this view the pace of change renders many conventional sociological approaches as old fashioned or even obsolete
Post-subcultural theory
The term that Bennett and Harris have used to describe the post-modernist studies of youth cultures. They argue that youth culture has become increasingly fragmented, diverse and is no longer based on class resistance
Fragmentation
Implies a breaking up of once cohesive societies into a plurality of comparatively disconnected individuals and groups
Individualisation
The notion that individuals are increasingly detached from traditional sources of stability, security and direction, and, as a consequence, float freely between a range of temporary identities
Fluidity
Social or cultural instability, changeability or ephemerality
Ephemeral
Temporary or subject to constant change
Consumerism
The pressure that society puts on individuals to purchase goods and service for money in ever increasing amounts. It reflects the rise in people’s disposable income (either through increase of wealth/income or through the availability of credit)
Consumer culture
A culture saturated by the buying and selling of material goods, to the extent that consumerism dominates cultural life and consumption habits become markers of identity, status and happiness
Consumer identities
Aspects of our identities that come from the things that we buy and the images and status associated with them
Symbolic value
A term used when consumer goods are purchased primarily as a marker of identity and status, rather than just because of their practical use
Haul girls
People who go shopping for things like clothes and beauty products, who then show viewers these products on Youtube
Planned obsolescence
A policy of planning or designing a product with an artificially limited useful life, so it will become obsolete, that is, unfashionable or no longer functional after a certain period of time
Supermarket of style
A phrase used by Polhemus to describe the way in which style and fashion relies upon sampling and mixing diverse, eclectic, often contradictory elements into a unique personal statement
Symbolic creativity
Refers to the way in which young people personalise their purchased goods, creating their own style and meanings
Ethnography
A qualitative research design which studies the way of life of a group people. It aims to see the world from their perspective using participant observation as the main method
Club cultures
Youth cultures that are based on dance music
Rave
A large dance party featuring performances by DJs playing electronic music, particularly electronic dance music The word was first used in the late 1980s to describe the subculture that grew out of the acid house movement
House music
A genre of electronic dance music that originated in Chicago in the early 1980s.
Acid house
A subgenre of house music developed around the mid-1980s by DJs from Chicago. It spread to the UK in the late 80s where it was played by DJs in the rave scenes
Ecstasy
A stimulant drug that is used illicitly for its euphoric and hallucinogenic effects. This drug was closely associated with the Rave scene
Cultural capital
A term used by Bourdieu to refer to forms of cultural knowledge, taste and experience that confer status and socio-economic advantages to those who have them
Sub-cultural capital
A term used by Thornton to describe ‘inside’ knowledge of a sub-cultural scene that establishes the credibility of ‘cool’ members. ‘Being in the know’
Taste cultures
Thornton’s idea that youth cultures are primarily centred on shared interests in music and fashion rather than class based resistance
Music scene
A term used to designate the contexts in which clusters of producers, musicians, and fans collectively share their common musical tastes and collectively distinguish themselves from others
Music genre
A term used to describe different types of musical styles
Neo-tribe
A term adopted by Post-subcultural theorists as a replacement for the concept ‘subculture’. Refers to a much more loosely organised grouping with no fixed membership or deep commitment. Young people flit from one grouping to another are not constrained by social factors such as class or gender
Tribalisation
A term used by Maffesoli to describe the way in which people no longer identify with a single youth culture, but may belong to a number and switch from one group to another
Hedonism
The pursuit of pleasure; sensual self-indulgence
Strong ties
Sustained group relationships that involve extensive familiarity and commitment. This can be linked to ‘Subcultures’
Weak ties
Narrow and limited relationships that lack intensity or commitment and are often confined to a particular sphere of interest (e.g. types of music or fashion). This can be linked to ‘Neo-Tribes’
Sub-cultural mobility
A term used to describe the way in which young people may switch their style and subcultural affiliations
Globalisation
The process whereby different parts of the world become intensively interconnected, in terms of trade, finance, politics, social life and culture
Transnational
Extending or operating across national boundaries
Global youth culture
The idea that there is now a transnational youth culture due mainly to the proliferation of media like film, television, popular music, the Internet and other information and communication technologies (ICTs)
Transnational Corporations (TNCs)
A large business with operations and outlets in a range of countries. They are responsible for spreading a commercialised global youth culture around the world
Cultural globalisation
Refers to the transmission of ideas, meanings and values around the world in such a way as to extend social relations. This process is marked by the common consumption of cultures that have been diffused by the Internet, popular culture media, and international travel
Cultural homogenization
The idea that cultural differences are erased, with world cultures becoming increasingly the same. Often linked to the ideas of globalization and cultural imperialism
McDonaldization
Ritzer’s term for the ways in which the organizing principles of a fast-food restaurant chain are coming to dominate and standardize many aspects of economic and cultural life globally
New bedroom cultures
The idea that for young people, their bedrooms are media-rich areas where they organise their lives via social networking and other forms of digital media
Cultural imperialism
A critical interpretation of processes of globalisation that emphasizes the cultural domination of small countries by multinational companies distributing Western media and cultural products
International trade
Is the exchange of goods and services between countries
Cultural diversity
The existence of a variety of cultural or ethnic groups within a society
Cultural imports
Aspects of youth culture which are produced in a foreign country and then influence the domestic youth culture
Cultural exports
Aspects of British youth culture which have influenced other countries (e.g. the success of British music artists overseas)
Culture of hybridity
A culture that is a ‘mix’ of two or more other cultures, creating a new culture
Glocal youth cultures
A mixing of youth cultures in which the local and global meet and produce a hybrid culture
Wireless communications
Things like smart phones, lap-tops and tablet computers
Screenagers
A term used to describe the current generation of young people who have grown up during the expansion of the internet and who have been immersed in a digital media environment
Virtual community
A term used to refer to a community that is primarily generated or sustained via Internet communication
Social networking sites
Web-based services that allow individuals to create a public profile, create a list of users with whom to share connections, and view and cross the connections within the system (e.g. Facebook and Twitter)
Web 2.0
A term used to describe the way in which the World Wide Web is being used in a more interactive and collaborative way. E.g. Wikipedia, You-Tube and social networking sites
The network society
A term used by Manuell Castells to describe the social, political, economic and cultural changes caused by the spread of networked, digital information and communications technologies
Social movement
A large group of people who are distinguished by common aspirations and a high level of political commitment, but often acting within a very loose organisational framework
Deviance
A failure to conform to social norms and values.
Crime
Behaviour which breaks the laws of a particular society & could result in actions taken by formal agencies of social control
Delinquency
A term frequently used to refer to relatively minor forms of criminal behaviour that are committed by young people
Moral panic
A concept used by Stan Cohen that refers to the media’s ability to transform an event or social group into a threat to society (i.e. a ‘folk devil’) through sensationalist reporting of news
Folk devil
Those groups identified and demonised by the media through the sensational reporting of a moral panic
Scapegoating
Blaming somebody for a problem in order to avoid dealing with the real issue
Symbolic short-hands
Refers to the way in which the media use things like items of clothing, hairstyles, modes of transport etc. to stereotype and demonise certain groups as troublemakers (e.g. ‘hoodies)
Deviancy amplification
A term coined by Leslie Wilkins to describe how agencies like the police and media can actually generate an increase in deviance, e.g. media coverage may glamourize certain forms of deviant behaviour
London riots
Between 6 and 11 August 2011, thousands of people rioted in several London boroughs and in cities and towns across England. In some sections of the media there was an attempt to blame gangs and ‘black street culture’ for these incidents
Divide and rule
The policy of maintaining control over one’s subordinates or opponents by encouraging dissent between them, thereby preventing them from uniting in opposition.
Crime statistics
A range of official figures which encompass a number of different measures of criminal activity (e.g. detection rates, conviction rates etc.)
Incarceration rates
The population of inmates confined in prison or other facilities under the jurisdiction of the state
Recidivism
Refers to a person’s relapse into criminal behaviour, often after the person receives sanctions or undergoes intervention for a previous crime
Control theory
Used in the study of crime to suggest that illegal activity takes place when society does not control sufficiently the naturally base appetites of human beings. Because young people have fewer responsibilities it is more difficult to regulate their behaviour according to this perspective
Edgework
Doing dangerous or socially disapproved acts for the thrill of it. Katz argues that crime is seductive – young people get drawn into it because of the buzz
Opportunistic crimes
Unplanned criminal acts
Social distance theory
Maruna argues that older people are more likely to have certain responsibilities which distance them from public situations in which opportunistic crime takes place
Peer group pressure
The influence that people who belong to a particular group can have on other members of the group
Illegal opportunity structure
An alternative illegal way of life to which certain groups have access to
Subcultural explanations of crime
They say that crime is the result of individuals following the deviant values and norms of a social group to which they belong
Status frustration
The resentment felt by people who have their aspirations to a particular position in society blocked. Albert Cohen suggests that working class youths may develop delinquent subcultures for this reason
Delinquent subculture
A youth group which is seen as subscribing to norms and values that are defined by mainstream society as criminal, anti-social or disruptive
Focal concerns
A term Miller uses to describe deviant lower-working class sub-cultural values
Subterranean values
Deviant ideas that are held by everyone but mainly expressed in legitimate ways. E.g. aggression and violent behaviour can be expressed through sport
Drift
Matza’s idea that young people can move in and out of delinquency before eventually growing out of it when they reach adulthood
Gang
Term often associated with groups who engage in criminal activities, membership often has to be earned by demonstrating loyalty to more senior members of the group. Territoriality is often a feature of such groups
Territoriality
A sense of ‘ownership’ over a geographical area combined with a readiness to defend it
Labelling theory
The idea that categorizing or stereotyping individuals or groups can seriously affect their behaviour and sense of self
Pro-school subcultures
The subcultures of groups of pupils who support school values, rules and regulations
Anti-school subcultures
The subcultures of groups of pupils who oppose or resist school values, rules and regulations. (also called ‘counter-school subcultures)
Pupil adaptations
A term used by Woods to describe the various ways in which pupils respond to schooling (ranging from ‘ingratiation’ to ‘rebellion’)
Self fulfilling prophecy
A prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true. E.g. when a teacher labels a student as ‘clever’.
Setting
Putting pupils of similar ability together in some classes
Cultural deprivation
The view that some students from poorer backgrounds are not equipped with the skills and values required for educational success
Interactionism
A micro-theory which argues that we need to analyse how individuals interpret reality in order to understand social action
Meaning
The beliefs, intentions, purposes or motives which people attach to their actions
Laddish behaviour
Being rowdy, macho, or immature
Status
Refers to the social positions individuals hold and the amount of prestige or importance a person has in the eyes of other members of society
Institutional racism
The collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture, or ethnic origin
Culture of resistance
When a group develops its own values that are opposed to those of the mainstream culture
Crisis of masculinity
The idea that men are having difficulty finding their role and masculine identity in contemporary society
