Sustainability

Question 1

Define the terms “conservation” and “preservation”, and explain the difference between the two.

Answer 1

Conservation = the maintenance of biodiversity through human action or management.
Preservation = the protection of an area by restricting or banning human interference.

Preservation is when humans try to leave an area alone whereas conservation is when humans actively do things to support the biodiversity of an area.

Question 2

Give 3 examples of conservation and 3 examples of preservation.

Answer 2

Examples of conservation could include:

1. Using grazing to keen Fenland from becoming woodland
2. Removal of invasive species such as rats from islands
3. Legal hunting of animals in nature reserves to reduce the population from potentially damaging levels

Examples of preservation could include:

1. International agreement to prevent large scale human activity in Antarctica
2. Gating pristine caves to prevent people entering in order to protect the fragile ecosystem and geology
3. Preventing access to some Galapagos islands or some parts of some islands

Question 3

Define reclamation.

Answer 3

Reclamation = a form of conservation in which ecosystems which have been damaged or destroyed are restored.

Question 4

Define “ecological” when referring to reasons for maintaining biodiversity.

Answer 4

Ecological = reasons concerning the potential impact on other species (and whole ecosystems)

Question 5

Define economic when referring to reasons for maintaining biodiversity.

Answer 5

Economic = reasons involving people, communities, or companies earning a living or making more money from the biodiversity in a sustainable way

Question 6

Define “aesthetic” when referring to reasons for maintaining biodiversity.

Answer 6

Aesthetic = reasons based around the beauty of nature and its ability to enrich lives and inspire people.

Question 7

Describe 3 aesthetic reasons for maintaining biodiversity.

Answer 7

1. Inspiration for musicians, artists, writers and poets
2. People enjoy the beauty in wildlife and landscape photography
3. People get enjoyment from being out in “nature” due to the beauty of it

Question 8

Describe 8 economic reasons for maintaining biodiversity.

Answer 8

1. Biodiversity attracts tourism and so brings money into an area
2. Biodiversity maintains the soil and so farmers can make money in a sustainable way
3. Biodiversity protects against natural disasters and so less money will be spent rebuilding
4. There is financial gain to be had from marketing a product as sustainably managed (e.g. timber or fish)
5. Potential economic value of cross-breeding crops with wild species to improve yield.
6. Potential, as yet undiscovered, economic value of known species.
7. Potential economic value of unknown species
8. Sustainable management allows money to be made in a trade by subsequent generations

Question 9

Describe 2 ecological reasons for maintaining biodiversity.

Answer 9

1. Due to the great interdependence of organisms it is impossible to predict the consequences of losing one species in an ecosystem
2. Keystone species are likely to have a major impact on a whole ecosystem if they are lost
3. Maintaining ecosystems (and their whole biodiversity) protects all species, even those without the conservation “draw”

Question 10

Define the term “social” when referring to reasons for conservation of biological resources and give two examples.

Answer 10

Social = reasons that are for the benefit of society, providing areas for relaxation, exercise and hobbies.

e.g. more jobs and less unemployment through ecotourism, less homelessness if there are fewer natural disasters, maintenance of jobs and culture through sustainable management of fishing, bird watching, wild camping, nature walking

Question 11

Define the term “ethical” when referring to reasons for conservation of biological resources and give two examples.

Answer 11

Ethical = reasons based on the rights given to organisms (or the environment) by some people, or on the moral responsibility we have to future generations

e.g. species have the right to life and so we shouldn’t let them go extinct, we have the responsibility to look after the natural habitat so that future generations can get the same aesthetic, social and economic benefits that we have gained from it.

Question 12

Define the term “sustainability” and “sustainable resource”.

Answer 12

Sustainability = the ability to continue a particular action indefinitely without using resources in a way that could eventually make them run out and without leading to irreversible damage to the environment.
Sustainable resource = something that is exploited economically so that it will not diminish or run out.

Question 13

Describe 5 aims of sustainability.

Answer 13

1. Preserve the environment
2. Ensure resources are available to future generations
3. Allow humans in all societies to live comfortably
4. Enable less economically developed countries (LEDCs) to develop, through exploiting their natural resources
5. Create a more even balance in the consumption of these resources between more economically developed countries (MEDCs) and LEDCs

Question 14

Describe 3 things that can be done to reduce the demand for a resource and therefore make it easier to manage sustainably.

Answer 14

Reduce the requirements for the resource
Reuse the resource
Recycle the resource, or other things made of the same material to produce more of the resource.

Question 15

State two methods of small scale timber production.

Answer 15

Coppicing and Pollarding

Question 16

Define the terms “coppicing”,

Answer 16

Coppicing = cutting a tree trunk back close to ground level to allow new shoots to grow up from this stump, and then harvesting the shoots a regular intervals

Question 17

Define “pollarding”

Answer 17

Pollarding = cutting a tree trunk back to a few metres above ground level to allow new shoots to grow up from the top of this trunk, and then harvesting the shoots a regular intervals

Question 18

Define “rotational coppicing”.

Answer 18

Rotational coppicing = dividing woodland up into sections, trees are only coppiced in one section each year. There are enough sections so that the first section has fully regrown by the time all other sections have been coppiced.

Question 19

Explain the advantage of rotational coppicing.

Answer 19

• A tree trunk is cut back close to ground level in winter. The next spring new shoots start to rapidly grow. Eventually these shoots are large enough to have economic value and are harvested. The next spring new shoots start to grow and the process can be repeated. Rotational coppicing provides a continuous yield from a woodland every year.
• Rotational coppicing maximises biodiversity as there is always a part of the woodland at each stage of regrowth, providing a variety of habitats throughout he woodland. Animals that require fuller regrowth can easily move to a nearby area when their section is coppiced.

Question 20

Explain an advantage of pollarding over coppicing.

Answer 20

Because the new growth is higher up in pollarded trees it is protected against damage from grazers such as deer. Also the tree trunks provide a habitat that is absent in coppiced trees.

Question 21

Describe the difference between harvesting in large scale timber production and harvesting in small scale timber production.

Answer 21

In large scale timber production, large areas of forest are felled at a time and the felled trees are destroyed and will not regrow.

Question 22

Describe 5 practices that can help large scale timber production to be sustainable.

Answer 22

1. Selective cutting only removes the largest trees
2. Replace trees through replanting
3. Plant trees an optimal distance apart to reduce competition – this maximises yield
4. Manage pests and pathogens to maximise quality and size of yield
5. Ensure that areas of forest remain for indigenous people

Question 23

Describe the disadvantages of large scale timber production.

Answer 23

Destruction of habitats, soil minerals are reduced, bare soil is susceptible to erosion.

Question 24

Name and describe an international agreement that aims to ensure fishing is sustainable in the EU.

Answer 24

Common fisheries policy – sets fishing quotas on the numbers of certain species of fish that are allowed to be caught in a particular area in order to maintain a natural population of these species that can reproduce sufficiently to maintain their population.

Question 25

Describe 3 methods which can help fishing to be sustainable.

Answer 25

1. The use of nets with different mesh sizes – e.g. having a large mesh size allows immature fish to escape.
2. Allowing commercial and recreational fishing only at certain times of the year. This protects the breeding season of some fish species, allowing populations to increase back to a sustainable level.
3. The introduction of fish farming to reduce the number of wild caught fish needed to meet demand.

Question 26

Explain why overfishing in one particular area is not likely to make a species extinct.
.

Answer 26

If a species has a wide range then overfishing in one area may make it locally extinct but the species itself will not go extinct as the fish still survives in other areas

Question 27

State what MMNR stands for and where it is.

Answer 27

MMNR = Masai Mara National reserve

It is in southern Kenya

Question 28

Describe the ecosystem of the Masai Mara.

Answer 28

It is a savannah ecosystem with rich grassland and woodland adjacent to the Mara river running through it. Away from the river it is mainly open plains with scattered shrubs and trees. A large zebra and wildebeest migration passes through it annually, and other large mammals living there include: buffalo, elephants, leopards, lions and black rhinos.

Question 29

Describe the impact local human populations have had on the ecosystem of the Masai Mara.

Answer 29

The main impact has been the changes in livestock grazing. Initially the people had a semi-nomadic lifestyle moving from place to place. This allowed time for vegetation to recover from the grazing. Grazing is now limited to areas around the edge of the reserve and there are larger herds. There are also more people and so more trees are removed for fuel. Both of these mean that vegetation doesn’t have time to recover and there is a great risk of soil erosion. On top of this some of the land has been converted to crop land. This means nutrients are used up and there is then a reliance on fertilisers.

Question 30

Define the term “ecotourism” and explain its value to the Masai Mara.

Answer 30

Ecotourism = Tourism directed towards natural environments to support conservation efforts and observe wildlife.
Ecotourism provides and economic input to the local community, it raises awareness of local issues and it is less damaging to the environment than agricultural practices.

Question 31

state 3 principles of ecotourism.

Answer 31

Principles of ecotourism:

1. Ensure tourism doesn’t exploit the natural environment or local communities
2. Consult and engage with local communities
3. Ensure infrastructure developments benefit local people

Question 32

Describe the negative impacts of ecotourism.

Answer 32

Soil erosion and habitat changes due to repeated use of hiking trails or mechanised transport
Litter
The requirement for more waste management
Strain on local infrastructure

Question 33

Describe the change in population size of the black rhino since the early 1970s and describe the threats to the black rhino and what conservation efforts were put in place.

Answer 33

Population in the Masai Mara:
1972 – >100
1982 – “ a handful”
Mid 1990s – increased but not back to the level of the early 1970s

The main threat was and is poaching (the horn is part of traditional medicine)

Active conservation and protection programme to encourage balance between the needs of local communities and wildlife. Reserve rangers employed, equipment and infrastructure supplied to protect against poaching.

Question 34

Describe 4 scientific research projects that have been undertaken in the Masai Mara.

Answer 34

Behaviour and physiology of spotted hyena

Flow assessment for Mara river basin

Mara predator project cataloguing and monitoring lion populations – identifying population trends and responses to changes in human activity

Mara-Meru cheetah project – monitoring populations and evaluating the impact of human activity on behaviour and survival

Question 35

Describe 4 ways in which there is a conflict between human needs and conservation/preservation in the Masai Mara and suggest how this conflict can be balanced.

Answer 35

Conflict

1. Fencing land reduces elephant damage to crops but impacts on migration routes
2. Hunting/poaching provides food and livelihood but reduces populations sizes of endangered species
3. Wild populations need to use their own ecosystem but allowing wild populations to come into close proximity to livestock generates competition between livestock and wild populations as well as allowing for the transmission of disease
4. Land is needed for homes, cattle and agriculture but land is also needed for the wild populations

Balancing conflict

1. Ecotourism
2. Compensation
3. Legal hunting to cull excess wild animals

Question 36

Describe the location of the Terai region of Nepal.

Answer 36

Southern Nepal

South side of the Himalayas (technically the Bhabhar and Siwalik mountain ranges)

Question 37

Describe the ecosystem of the Terai region of Nepal.

Answer 37

Rich agricultural area
25-50km wide
Hot and humid in the summer months
Lowlands with well watered flood plain
Alluvial soil rich in plant nutrients
Extreme biodiversity
Contains thick forest with Bengal tiger, Sloth bear and Indian rhino
Pipal and bamboo as well as many other subtropical plants

Question 38

Describe the impact local human populations have had on the ecosystem of the Terai region. (F)

Answer 38

There is a high population density
It is the main agricultural area for the country
It is an important source of national income

All of this means that the natural resources are at risk of being overused

Poverty and corruption have lead to large areas of forest being cleared for agriculture or to sell the timber. This has exacerbated the effects of monsoon flooding leading to disruption to the communities down stream.

Question 39

Describe how sustainable forest management is helping to balance the conflict between human needs and conservation/preservation in the Terai region.

Answer 39

It provides a livelihood for local people, ensures conservation of forests and provides the state with considerable income. To achieve this there has been national legislation and local community forestry groups have been set up. These groups have their own operational plans, set harvesting rules, rates and prices for products and determine how surplus income is distributed. Cooperative networks also work together (e.g. gaining forestry stewardship council (FSC) certification).

Question 40

Describe 6 positive outcomes of community forestry groups in the Terai region.

Answer 40

1. Improvement in conservation of forested regions (increased area and density of forests conserved)
2. Improved soil and water management
3. Increase in retail price of products so greater economic input to the region
4. Employment and income generation through forest protection and production of non-timber products
5. Sustainable wood fuel sources make up ¾ of local household energy needs
6. Securing biodiversity of forested areas

Question 41

State some locations of peat bogs in the UK.

Answer 41

Peat-based soils include fenland, moorland and “lowland raised bogs”. Bogs and moorland are acidic whereas fenland is alkaline.
10% of UK is peat of one form or another (80% of this is in poor condition).
Some locations include: fenland in east Anglia, moorland in the highlands of Scotland, Dartmoor, Exmoor, Snowdonia, and the lake and peak districts.

Question 42

Describe the ecosystem of peat bogs.

Answer 42

Acidic and waterlogged, anaerobic conditions prevent decay. Plants include mosses (mainly sphagnum), sedges, bog cotton, cotton sedge and heathers. There are some shrubs but few trees. Insects include butterflies, moths, dragonflies and damselflies. There are many spiders and frogs. There are many nesting birds. They are often ideal hunting grounds for birds of prey. Many of the animals and plants live only in this ecosystem.

Question 43

Describe the impact local human populations have had on the ecosystem of peat bogs. (F)

Answer 43

Specifically in relation to lowland raised bogs the area of them in the UK is down by more than 90% in the last 100 years (950km2 down to just 60km2). This has been caused by afforestation (trees growing on them), being drained for farmland, and having the peat extracted for use as a fuel or as compost for gardens/farmers.

Question 44

Name 3 conservation organisations that are helping to balance that conflict between human needs and conservation/preservation of peat bogs in the UK.

Answer 44

1. Wildlife trusts
2. Natural England
3. RSPB (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds)

They aim manage and restore peat bogs to maintain biodiversity, provide flood management, for erosion control downstream and for carbon storage.

Question 45

Describe 3 conservation methods to maintain or restore lowland peat bogs. (F)

Answer 45

1. Ditch blocking to raise the water table to the bog surface
2. Removal of seedling trees to reduce water loss through transpiration
3. Controlled grazing to maintain biodiversity – ensures a diverse wetland surface both in terms of structure and species composition – ensuring a wide range of habitats.

Methods 1 and 2 make sure the bog remains wet to provide the correct conditions for the bog species and to prevent/reduce decay.

Question 46

Define the term “environmentally sensitive ecosystem”.

Answer 46

Ecosystems with low resistance to change. Any change disturbs the ecosystem significantly, changing food webs and potentially leading to the extinction of species and massive change in the ecosystem.

Question 47

State 5 management techniques used in environmentally sensitive ecosystems.

Answer 47

1. Limit the areas tourists can visit as well as limiting tourist numbers
2. Control the movement of livestock and restrict land use.
3. Introduce anti-poaching measures
4. Replanting of forests and native plants
5. Limiting hunting through quotas and seasonal bans

Question 48

Describe the location and nature of the Galapagos Islands.

Answer 48

They are about 1000km west of Ecuador in the Pacific ocean

They are a collection of volcanic islands (an archipelago) that have never been connected to the mainland.

Question 49

Describe 3 of the animals present in the Galapagos Islands.

Answer 49

Examples could include:

1. Galapagos giant tortoise
2. Flightless cormorant
3. Marine iguana
4. Galapagos rice rat

Question 50

Describe 3 of the plant zones, and state examples of the plants found in the zones, in the Galapagos Islands.

Answer 50

Examples could include:

1. Coastal zone – salt-tolerant species e.g. mangrove and saltbush
2. Arid zone – drought tolerant species – e.g. cacti and the carob tree
3. Humid zone – cloud forest – e.g. mosses, liverworts, Scalesia tree

Question 51

Define the terms “flora” and “fauna”. (F)

Answer 51

Flora = plant life (often includes fungi and bacteria)
Fauna = animal life

Question 52

Describe 5 measures that have been taken to protect the ecosystem of the Galapagos Islands.

Answer 52

1. The Galapagos National Park (set up in 1959)
2. Park rangers
3. Limiting human access to parts of, or whole, islands
4. Controlling migration
5. Controls over movement of introduced animals e.g. pigs

Question 53

Describe the location and nature of Antarctica.

Answer 53

A land mass centred over the south pole.
It is the coldest, highest, driest, windiest and emptiest continent.
It is almost entirely covered by ice sheets that average 2km thick and contain 70% of the world’s freshwater.
The average temperature in winter is -30°C.
There are only 2 seasons
It is surrounded by nutrient-rich, cold oceans.

Question 54

Describe 3 of the animals present in Antarctica.

Examples could include:

Answer 54

1. Weddell seal
2. Emperor penguin
3. Wingless midge
4. Humpback whale
5. Blue whale

Question 55

Describe the nature of the plant and fungal life in Antarctica.

Answer 55

Plant and fungal life only exists in the ice-free regions (2% of the continent). It consists mainly of Lichen, moss and algae.

Question 56

Describe 4 impacts human activity has had on Antarctica.

Answer 56

Examples could include:

1. Humans have contributed to global warming which is accelerating the melting and cleaving of ice sheets. The ice sheets are now smaller.
2. Hunting and fishing has reduced populations of wild species
3. There has been soil contamination
4. Discharging of waste into the sea has had an impact on many species
5. Tourism means there is more disruption to breeding grounds and more ocean noise.

Question 57

Describe 5 provisions of the Antarctic treaty that help to protect the ecosystem of Antarctica.

Answer 57

Examples could include:

1. Scientific cooperation between nations
2. Protection of the Antarctic environment
3. Conservation of plants and animals
4. Designation and management of protected areas
5. Management of tourism

Question 58

Describe the location and nature of Snowdonia National Park.

Answer 58

It is about 2000km2 and located in NW Wales. It is the highest mountain range in England and Wales (there are 4 peaks over 1000m including Mount Snowdon). There are lakes, fast flowing rivers, ancient woodland and heath.

Question 59

Describe 3 habitats for birds, and give examples of the birds in each habitat, in Snowdonia National Park.

Answer 59

Examples could include:

1. Coastal and estuary – e.g. chough, cormorant, oystercatcher
2. Forest – e.g. pied flycatcher, redstart, wood warblers
3. Moorland and mountain – e.g. osprey, buzzard, sparrowhawks

Question 60

Give an example of a plant adapted to the extreme conditions on Mount Snowdon.

Answer 60

An example could be the Snowdon Lily.

Question 61

State 3 purposes of the park authority set up to conserve the biodiversity of Snowdonia National Park.

Answer 61

1. Conserve and enhance the natural beauty, wildlife and cultural heritage
2. Promote opportunities for understanding and enjoyment of the special qualities of the park
3. Enhance the economic and social well-being of communities within the park.

Question 62

Describe how the Dinorwig power station is an example of managing the conflict between human need and the conservation of biodiversity.

Answer 62

Located deep inside a mountain in tunnels and caverns, and so it doesn’t affect the natural beauty of Snowdonia but still meets the demand for energy.

Question 63

Describe the location and nature of The Lake District.

Answer 63

It is 2292km2 in NW England. It is England’s largest national park and contains England’s highest mountain and deepest lake. There are a variety of habitats including moorland, fell, lakes, dales and ancient woodland.

Question 64

Describe some of the animals found in The Lake District.

Answer 64

Examples could include:

1. Water vole
2. Natterjack toad
3. Various bat species
4. Red deer
5. Birds of prey
6. Red squirrel
7. Vendace (a fish)

Question 65

Define the term “arctic-alpine plant community” and give 4 examples of arctic-alpine plants found in The Lake District.

Answer 65

Plants that live above the tree line.
Examples could include:
1.	Purple saxifrage
2.	Alpine cinque foil
3.	Dwarf juniper
4.	Dwarf willow

Question 66

Give an example of a plant found in the lowland regions of The Lake District.

Answer 66

One examples is the Sundew – a carnivorous plant.

Question 67

State 4 purposes of the park authority set up to conserve the biodiversity of the Lake District National Park. (F)

Answer 67

1. To conserve the biodiversity of the region
2. To conserve the natural beauty and cultural heritage of the region
3. To enable access to the region
4. To actively manage the region to achieve the above

Question 68

1. From all of the conservation and preservation case studies summarise the fundamental reasons for conflict between humans and biodiversity and the associated threats. (F)

Answer 68

Threats to biodiversity

1. Human visitors – tourism and/or migration
2. Human actions – disturbing wildlife, noise, trampling, footpath erosion, waste, oil spills, introducing invasive species, resource collection, livelihoods, killing, hunting, fishing, poaching
3. Invasive species – competition, predation, grazing
4. Land use / Habitat destruction – roads, buildings, farmland
5. Global warming / Climate change

Threats to humans

1. Land use – nature reserves - competition between human use of land and nature’s needs
2. Damage – native species cause injury or death, damage crops
3. Livelihood – a consequence of land use and damage issues, banning of fishing or hunting, banning of resource collection.

Question 69

From all of the conservation and preservation case studies summarise the fundamental ways that conflict between humans and biodiversity can be resolved and solutions can be found to maintain biodiversity.

Answer 69

1. Local communities – education, involvement in the solution
2. Restoration of land - footpaths, replanting forests, rewetting bogs
3. Alternative livelihoods
4. Local, national and international regulations – treaties, national parks
5. Government incentives
6. Barriers – electric fences, walls
7. Regulations on tourism – numbers, places, guides
8. Regulations on imports – quarantine, banned goods
9. Removal of invasive species
10. Environmentally sensitive construction projects