summer assessment 2: settlement, plate tectonics, energy/development Flashcards
dispersed settlement
where individual buildings are spread out across a landscape
linear settlement:
where a settlement occurs along either side of a road and looks like a long line
nucleated settlement:
circular in shape with the buildings mostly concentrated around a route centre
site def
the area of land actually covered by the buildings in a settlement
topographic map def
a detailed and quantitative representation of relief - the height and shape of the land, usually using contour lines
situation def
a description of a settlement on relation to the other settlements and physical features that surround it
settlement function def
the term given to the functions that take place in a settlemen.
situation
the settlement in relation to the surrounding area, the size and functions of surrounding settlments, the presence of large physical features such as valleys and hills, and access to natural resources cuh as fertile soils, fuel, minerals and route ways.
main factors affecting growth and functions of settlement:
flat or gently sloping land a good defence site a wer point for water supply dry point to avoid flooding having building materials nearby supply of fuel fertile land a sheltered site good transport links
factors affecting growth of ports:
deep water estuary deep water anchorage a sheltered anchorage access to important sea routes a large hinterland well developed communications
factors affecting growth of industy and factories
large river supplies water
cheap, flat land
near excellent transport toures, rivers, railways, air
nearby labour force
settlement hierachy def
a way of arranging settlements into rank order based upon their population or some other criteria
service hierachy def
settlements can be ranked according to the type of service they provide, such as in health care or education.
convenience goods def
goods that people need to buy perhaps two or three times a week such as water, vegetables, fruit, milk and newspapers.
sphere of influence def
the area surrounding a settlement that is affected by the settlement’s activities.
factors that affect spheres of influence
number and type of services
transport facilities available to the settlement
level of competition from surrounding settlements
advantages of high order settlements over low order
larger range due to higher order services and comparison goods and better quality
offer more shops/wider variety/cheaper prices
c1: transport in bristol
bristol bus station
c1: services in bristol
it;s multiuse, so education (BGS,QEH), entertainment (Hippodrome) and healthcare (southmead)
c1: shopping in bristol
cabot circus has 120 shops. st nicohlas market. VERY wide range of supermarkets
c2: settlement provision in a high order settlement, bristol
bristol pop: 536,000
bristol shops: topshop, trek bicycle
bristol schools: BGS, QEH
bristol healthcare: BRI, southmead
bristol university
bristol sports grounds: BGS, clifton colllege
bristol transport: bristol TM, bus station
c2: settlement provision in a medium order settlement, nailsea
nailsea pop: 15,630
nailsea shops: new look, costa, pets corner
nailsea schools: nailsea school
nailsea healthcare: tower house medical centre
nailsea transport: nailsea and backwell train station, first bus
nailsea sports grounds: the grove sports centre
c3: settlement provision in a low order settlement, chew magna
chew magna pop: 1160
chew magna shops: radstock co-op, post office
chew magna schools: chew valley school
chew magna sports grounds chew valley leisure centre
chew magna transport: bus 672
a typical CBD will have these features
high cost of land high rise buildings few houses/residences a lack of open space a transport focus
CBD def
the main commercial and shopping area of a town or city
inequality def
the extreme differences that exist within many urban areas in poverty and wealth, access to employment opportunities or access to services such as healthcare and housing provision
rural-urban fringe def
where the urban area meets the rural countryside at the edge of a town or city
examples of reurbanisation
pedestrian zones
redevelopments on brownfield sites
gentrification
social adv to improved housing over new flats
high est. community spirit
people cannot afford to move to a costly new house
area will already have convienent services
cheaper option for the lcoal gov
helps to restrict the outward expanion
minimises disruptuion
regeneration scheme def
the use of public money to reverse the decline of a city or town by improving both the physical structure and the economy of those areas by encouraging private investment
reurbanisation def
the movement of people back into an area thta has been previously re-abandoned
brownfield site def
land that was previously used for either industrial purposes or some commercial uses
gentrification def
renovation and revival of deteriorated urban area to attract more affluent residents
urban sprawl def
the expansion of an urban area away from the central urban areas into low-density and often car-dependent communitites on the edge of existing urban areas
green belts def
areas of land surroudning an urban city area where any new housing or industrial development was tobe stopped or severly restricted
footloose business def
business that are not tied to a paticular location
greenfield site def
an area of underdeveloped land, often being used for agricultural needs, amenity or forest use, or some other undeveloped site that has been identified for commercial development or industrial projects
counter urbanisation def
when large numbers of people move from urban areas into the surrounding countryside or rural areas
surbanised villages def
villages which have adopted some of the characteristics of urban areas
commuter hinterland def
the rural area around large urban areas/cities that are economically active tied to the urban area
reasons for developments at the rural-urban fringe
land cheaper much less traffic congestion room to expand in future larger area for parking less pollution
reasons for counter urbanisation
houses withmodern design space for parking quite easy access to local services quite low cost compared gardens/space/close to open space no air pollution close proximity to their workplaces good public transport
causes of traffic congestion
inadequate road infrastructure to meet the number of vehicles using the road network
causes of housing shortages
lack of both public and private housing as a result of inadequate planning
causes of unemployment
urban economy failing to expand to provide employment for the expanding urban population, especially where rural-urban migration is taking place
causes of deprivation
lack of employment and education opportunites
causes of pollution
lack of environmental pollution laws and regualtions
possible solution to traffic congestion
increase public transport and provision of it (buses, trains, trams and light railways)
possible solution to housing shortages
planned urban housing expanison
possible solution to unemploymnetq
increase employment opportunities by expanding school and training facilitites
possible solution to deprivation
increase educational opportunities by expanding schools and better training facilities
possible solution to pollution - air, water, noise
provide better water and sewage facilities and enforce stricter environmental pollution controls
c2: traffic problems
bristol:
£2000 project in metrobus, carried over 2.8 million passengers in first year of launch
clean air zone exclusive to less-polluting vehicles
encouraging electric cars - source west
c2: environmental problems
air pollution:
particles from nitrogen dioxide stuck in peoples lungs, caused 5 people to die a week in bristol. ban disel cars from entering some city parts between 7am and 3pm
visual pollution:
graffitti (like 12m billboards) seen to be unsightly, £75 000 being spent on tackling graffitii by government
traffic congestion:
drivers spend 149 hours in traffic each year, 24 deaths due to road transport emissions
c2: housing shortages
Typical house prices more than 10 x average salary
10,000 students in bristol
Only 1300 extra affordable homes are planned to be built over the next two years
urbanisation def
the process by which an increasing proportion of people live in towns and cities instead of the countryside
implications of rapid and unplaned urban growth
inequality services will be inadequate pollution environmental degradation unsustabinable production levels of consumption
mega-cities def
cities with 10 million inhabitants or more
rural depopulation def
the fall in population of rural areas by migration or by a fall in birth rate as young people move away
push factors
cause people to move away
pull factors
cause people to move from rural areas to urban areas
examples of push factors
lack of alternative jobs to farming trend for large landowners to take back the land of their tenant farmers to grow cash crops for export high infant mortality natural disasters lack of infrastructure
examples of pull factors
more schools, doctors and healthcare services available in the urban areas.
successful migrants encourage their extended families and other members of their rural communities to join them in the large urban area
causes of rapid urban growth
a natural increase in population
migration to urban areas
free market economy def
an economy where the government imposes few, if any restrictions on buyers and sellers
favelas def
housing areas of 60 or more families in houses that often ack the basic services of running water, sewerage and electricity and the residents have no legal right to the land on which they live.
inpacts of rapid urban growth
inadequatae housing
infreastructure poor
lack of affordable formal hosuing
squatter settlemtns built on inappropriate/dangerous land
poor transport infrastructure
lack of employment so many work in informal sector
high pollution
effects of urbanisation on the people and environment
increased traffic congestion increased air, water and noise pollution destruction of agricultural land and open space huge infrastructure costs crowded and crumbling schools
squatter settlements def
an area of makeshift hosusing that usually develops in unfavourable sites in and around a MIC or LIC city. they are also known as shanty towns or bustees
self help schemes def
small-scale schemes which allow local residents to help improve their local area
challenges of squatter settlmetns
overcrowding fires overpopulated competition for employment poor sanitation and limited healthcare lack of (open) space lack of infrastructure
site and service schemes
give people the chance to rent or buy a piece of land
self help schemes
cheaper option than site and service, where people are provided with materials and tools and training to improve their homes. low-interest loans are made.
rural investments
where attempts and schemes have been set up to improve the quality of life
c3: problems in squatter settlements
low hygiene and sanitation
500 people share the same toilet
widespread disease
of diptheria, typhoid. there are over 4000 cases of disease related to poor sanitation
lack of resources
water rationed except 5:30 to 7:30
c3 causes of urban growth
Nearly 30% of India’s agricultural land has become degraded due to overfarming, resulting in deserticiation and food insecurity in some rural areas.
Mumbai centre for two major railways, the central railway and the western railway.
An agricultural labourer in Gujarat is only paid an average daily wage of £1.80
volcano def
cone shaped mountain formed by eruptions of lava at the surface of the earth
crater def
a depression on the surface of a volcano, formed by volcanic activity, often circular in shape with steep sides
vent def
the natural pipe or fissure that links the magma chamber to the crater or opening on the earths surface through which lava, ash and gases flow
lava def
magma that has escaped from beneath the earth’s crust and has flowed onto the surface
tectonic plates def
huge pieces of the earth’s crust that float and move on top of the much denser mantle below them
constructive/divergent plate boundary def
where two plates apart, allowing magma to come to the surface as lava.
magma def
molten rock found beneath the earths crust
constructive/divergent plate boundary
when two plates move away from eachother
how do volcanoes form on a constructive plate boundary
when the plates move away from eachother, a line of weakess is created.
molten magma emerges through the gap.
when magma appears on the earths surface, it is called lava.
the lava solidifes to form a volcano
destructive/convergent plate boundary
when two plates move towards eachother, where a heavier, denser oceanic plate moves down under a less heavy continental plate (subduction).
how do volcanoes form on a destructive plate boundary
friction and intense heating takes place, which results in the destruction of the oceanic plate (which was forced downwards) , causing the rocks in the plate to melt and turn into molten magma. the build up of magma creates enormous pressures on the crust above it and the magma rises through lines of weakness to emerge on the surface of the earth. the lava then solidifies to form a volcano.
magma chamber def
a large natural underground chamber of magma found within the surface of the earth beneath a volcano
hot spot def
a central part of the earths crust where plumes of magma rise to the surface
subduction def
when one plate sinks below another
how can magma leave a volcano
volcanic bombs (fragments of molten rock) very fine ash (fragments of pulverised solid lava)
pyroclastic flows:
clouds of very hot, poisonous gases mixed with ash that flow down the sides of volcanoes up to 200km/hour
lahars:
melted snow and ice from the top of the volcano combined with rainwater, which mixes with ash and runs off the volcano, flooding valleys and flatter areas surrounding the volcano with mud
earthquakes:
as the magma moves upwards, the enormous pressure on the crust reaches breaking point, causing violent shaking
what can eruptions be accompanied by
pyroclastic flows
lahars
earthquakes
composite or strato volvanoes
these are made from alternating layers of lava and ash as both come out of the vent during an eruption. they form on destructive plate boundaries where oceanic crust has melted as it is subducted. the lava forces its way up through the crust and emerges in a violent explosion.
shield volcanoes
these are made from lava and form on constructive plate boundaries or at hot spots. they form large volcanoes, with gently sloping sides, sometimes hundreds of kilometres across because the lava is alkaline and very runny and travels a long way on the surface before cooling and solidifying.
dome volcanoes:
these are also made from lava but the lava is acid and does not flow very far before becoming solid, and so these volcanoes are steep-sided and high.
what is an active volcano
one that has recently erupted and is likely to erupt again.
what is a dormant volcano
one that has erupted in the last 2000 years and may possibly erupt again.
what is an extinct volcano
one that has long since finished erupting and has cooled down.
earthquake def
a sudden and often violent shift in the rocks forming the earths crust, which is felt at the surface.
fault line def
a fracture or break in the earth’s surface along which rocks have moved alongside each other
focus def
a fracture or break in the earths surface along which rocks have moved alongside each other
conservative plate boundary def
where two plates are sliding alongside eachother
epicentre def
the location on the surface of the earth above the focus or origin of the earthquake
what measures the size of an earthquake
seisometer
what are the two scales to map earthquakes
moment magnitude scale (richter scale)
mercalli scale
tsunami def
powerful, devastating waves at the coast caused by an undersea earthquake or volcanic eruption that displaces the water lying above it.
seisometer def
an instrument that measures movement of the ground, including the seismic waves generated by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
seismic waves def
waves of energy that travel through the earths layers as a result of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma movements and large landslides.
moment magnitude/richter scale
numerical scales showing the size or magnitude of an earthquake based on readings from the seisometer
mercalli scale
a scale showing the effect of an earthquake on the earths surface (largely subjective interpreations of the physical damage caused by an earthquake)
aftershock is
an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake. formed as the earths crust around a fault adjusts to the effects of the main shock
layers of the earth
crust
mantle
outer core
inner core
inner core
solid and extremely dense rocks.
outer core
dense, semi-molten metal
mantle
semi-monlten, less dense layer
crust
varies in thickness.
could be oceanic or continental
oceanic crust
relatively thin crust
younger
heavier
continually being formed and destroyed
continental crust
relatively thick
older
lighter
cannot be destroyed
destructive/convergent plate boundaries are found
where plates made of heavier oceanic crust move towards plates made of lighter continental crust and forms a subduction zone
what happens at a destructive plate boundary after the formation of a subduction zone
the oceanic crust sinks deeper and melts and forms magma. this may rise to the surface and emerge as lava it forms very explosive volcanoes.
what happens when a subduction zone forms in the ocean
a line of volcanic islands called island arcs forms.
conservative plate boundaries are found
where plates slide past eachother
what happens at a conservative plate boundary
sometimes they become locked together and pressure builds up until they tear apart, along a fault line. these movements can produce very powerful earthquakes.
collision plate boundaries are found
where two continental plates converge/move towards eachother.
what happens at a collision plate boundary
these lighter plates are not dense enough to sink into the mantle. as the plates collide, they fold up and form fold mounatins. these collisions can produce powerful earthquakes.
what are primary effects
these occur as a direct result of the earthquake or eruption, such as buildings collapsing due to the ground shaking or loss of life due to pyroclastic flows
what are secondary effects
these occur as a result of the primary effects, such as the impact of tsunamis, fires caused by ruptured gas mains or higher insurance premiums
impacts of earthquakes and volcanoes on people
loss of life cutting of basic necessities collapse of buildings road, railway and bridge damage loss of crops fish killed spread of disease loss of jobs and businesses higher insuranc epremiums
amount of damage caused by earthquakes depends on
strength of intital earthquake depth of earthquake distance from epicentre geology of rocks in the area building construction materials and designs space between builidngs number of storys density of population time of day secondary hazards contamination
subduction zone def
the zone where one tectonic palte sinks under another
island arc def
a chain of volcanic islands isolated above a subduction zone at a tectonic plate boundary
tephra def
rock fragments and particles ejected by a volcanic eruption
fumarole def
an opening in or near a volcano through which gase,s such as sulphur dioxide are emitted
opportunities provided by volcanoes
fertile soils people can obtain geothermal enrgy for heating and electricity provides reaw materilas like ores attracts tourists close to friends and family
reuducing the impact of earthquakes and volcanoes
improved technology (and use of historical data can improve prediction and forecasting of earthquakes and volcanoes) mapping of high risk areas (so not built on) improved building design and materials (so buildings dont collapse) ensuring that adequate emergency drills and procedures are in place (stockpiling etc)
how to predict volcanic eruptions
seismometers tilt meters thermometers gas sensoros satellites
c4: nepal impacts
nepal: 7.8 magnitude, april 2015, major fault line under indian plate under eurasion plate
9000 died
9000 schools destroyed
damages from $5 billion to $10 billion
c5: eyjafjallajokull impacts
eyjafjallajokull: 500m fissure, dissolved gases in molten rock along with steam generated from melting ice caused a large column of volcanic ash
airlines lost £130 million / day
Nissan forced to stop production because they could not import parts from ireland
major flood in iceland - 700 people forced to evacuate
c5: why people live close to eyjafjallajokull
fertile soil - (volcanic eruptions deposit the necessary minerals for a steady supply of nutrients) 1/5 of total are of iceland suitable for fodder production
tourism - eyjafjallajokull visitor centre
energy - nearly 100% from geothermal
c5: effects of eyjafjallajokull
700 to evacuate due to flood
ash fall poisoned animals in nearby fields
7km of volcanic ash plumes
c5: causes of eyjafjalljokull
North american and eurasion plate
The two plates are moving apart (constructive) due to ridge push along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. As the plates move apart, magma fills the magma chamber below Eyjafjallajokull.
c4: nepal causes
caused by a sudden thrust, or release of built-up stress.
Indian Plate is diving underneath the Eurasian Plate.
magnitude of 8.1
development gap
the differences between the most and least advanced countries - HIC’s and LIC’s
north-south divide
a socio-economic and political divide between the north and the south
development def
process of change which alllows all the basic needs of a country or region to be met, thereby achieveing greater social justice and quality of life
measures of development
economically using GNP, GDP or GNI per caita. social indicators (health, literacy/education/wellbeing) political factors (personal freedom, freedom of speech, right to vote, freedom from discrimination and the role of disadvantaged groups in the society
what is multivariate analysis
measurement of a range of development variables (not just economic). used for qualitative variables that are harder to compare.
HDI
longetivity - life expectancy
knowledge - adult literacy rate and enrolment ratios of students in primary school throught to university level
income -
purchasing power parity (PPP)
gdp per person adjusted for local cost of living
trade blocs def
groups of countries form economic agreements and unions
what affects quality of life
social factors; health, literacy/education, well being
physical factors; personal freedom, freedom of speech, right to cote, freedom from discrimination and role of disadvantaged groups in society,
HDI consists of
longetivity (health)
knowledge (education and literacy)
income
limitations of HDI
partially politically motivated to focus on health and development
only 3 factors
it can hide huge regional disparities
its relative not absolute
multidimensional poverty index
uses different fators to determine the levels of poverty and allows comparisons across countries, regions and the world, and within countries by ethnic group, urban/rural location.
factors that contribute to development gap (6)
location and physical environment size of country in area climate economic policies political stability population policies
formal secctor def
encompassing all jobs with normal hours and regualar wages, on which income tax must be paid.
informal sector def
encompassing all jobs which are not recognised as normal income sources and on which taxes are not paid.
classifications of production
primary
secondary
tertiary
quaternary
employment structure def
the percentage of workers in the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary sectors in a country
transnatioonal corporation def
global corportations, companies or businesses with their headquarters and research development activities in one country and their factories and/or production centres in other countries.
economic globalisation
largely caused by the growth of transnational coorportations
cultural globalisation
impact of western culture/art/media/sport/leisure activities
political globalisation
growth of western democracies and their influence on other countries
global shift def
where production processes are relocated from HIC’s to MIC’s and LIC’s
multiplier effect
occurs when an initial injection of money into the local, regional or national economy causes a bigger final increase in local, regional, or national wealth.
trend of employment in LIC;s
high percentage in primary
small percentage in secondary
smaller percentage in tertiary
trend of employment in HIC;s
low percentage in primary
high percentage in secondary (but now falling)
high percentage in tertiary
high percentage in quarternary
causes of economic globalisation
growth of TNC’s and MNC’s
improvements in transport technology
accelerating advances in ICT
formation and growing importance of refional economic or trading blocks
advantages of TNC’s
increase employment higher wages an improvement in skills improvements in transport infrastructure improvements in service infrastructure rise in standard of living improvements in public services workers income benefits new technology and training
disadvantages of TNC’s
leakage of profits exploitation of labour force low pay for workers highly skilled jobs may go to outsiders branch plants may close as other locations becomemore cost efficent may have poor work conditions where workers health and safety may be compromised loss of rural land pollution
c6: toyota benefits and negatives
tourism: westfield, trainstation and leisure
employment: over 2500 people
traffic - heavier than before 1992 and hold ups on the A38 at rush hour
c6: toyota location FACTS
regional hq in: uk, usa, japan, thailand
- able to locate near other TNC’s for collaboration and competition.
r&d sites in: usa, china, japan
-higher calibre universities for high-calibre employees
most manufacturing sites in: uk
-good access to market, room to expand, government gives cheaper taxes
c6: toyota features
inputs: 580 acres of land
2506 employees
processes: welding, assembly
outputs: 14,000 corollas
c6: toyota impacts
tourism - westfield, trainstation, new leisure opportunities
employment - since opening, employed over 2500 people
traffic - heavier than before 1992, hold ups on the A38 at rush hour
Dharavi
case study?
non-renewable fossil fuel def
a fuel that is either finite or non-sustainable. this is because their use will eventually lead to them running out. non-renewable fossil fuels include coal, oil, natural gas and peat.
renewable energy supply def
a resource that can be used continually without running out - it is a sustabinable resource.
biofuels def
fuels produced from living organisms or from their by-products, such as food waste
greenhouse gas def
a gas in the atomosphere that is capable of absorbing infrared radiation, thereby trapping and holding heat in the atmosphere.
acid rain
rain made up of water droplets that have absorbed certain gases in the atmosphere and have become slightly acidic; usually due to atmospheric pollution and, most notably, the excessive amounts of certain sulphur and nitrogen gases released by burning fossil fuels, cars, and industrial processes.
main source of energy for HIC’s
oil and natural gas
where is nuclear energy mostly used
in countries that do not have their own large supplies of fossil fuels, such as France, Japan, South Korea and Belgium
advantages of nuclear
not a bulky fuel
nuclear waste is small in quantity and can be stored underground
does not produce greenhouse gases, carbon missions or acid rain
stops countries relying on imported oil, coal and gas
relatively large reserves of uranium
relatively low running costs
disadvantages of nuclear
dangerous if there is a nuclear accident
nuclear waste can remain dangerous for several thousand years.
high decommissioning costs.
what has had the largest growth in the last few years
wind, solar and HEP
in LIC’s a lot of people don’t have electricity, aso they rely on fuels such as
wood and charcoal. costs of solar falling so is becoming more common.
what generates the highest proportion of renewable energy
HEP
wave and tidal power…
have high energy levels but it is difficult to design a wave power generator that can withstand large storm waves.
how does geothermal energy work
in volcanic areas, heat comes close to the earths surface from the magma beneath the surface. rainwater infiltrating the ground becomes heatend and may rise to the surface as steam or as hot springs. it can then be used to heat buildings or generate electricity
country with largest geothermal energy
USA
what is wind power
the conversion of wind energy into a useful form like electriciy, using wind turbines.
solar energy can
generate electricity by providing heated water for a thermal generator or by using PV cells which convert sunlight into electricity
what is biomass
plant matter grown to generate electricity. cheap and easy to construct and maintain so used in LIC’s a lot.
where is fuelwood commonly used
LIC’s, but demand in now outstripping supply where deforestation rate is higher than regrowth and replanting rate.
c7: china, how is energy supplied
HEP - Yangtze river 3 gorges dam is over 2km with 3 powerhouses
Coal - 65% of energy mix. largest producer and consumer of coal in the world
Oil - largest oil importer in the world. 1.5% of total oil reserves
c7: Importance of different types of energy
Coal based electricity - enough to power 31 million homes
Oil - 360 million vehicles
HEP - produces over 20,000 mW of energy
the yangtze river
over 60 stories high
over 2km long
32 turbines
adv of the yangtze river dam
hep is renewable, clean and non-polluting
can be used ofr recreation and attract tourists
flood control
disadv of the yantgze river dam
expensive to build
destroy wildlife habitats
1.2 million people had to move in china to allow for room.
