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Phase 1 mine > SUGER > Flashcards

SUGER Flashcards

1
Q

where is the mid-inguinal point and what is significant about it

A

halfway between pubis symphysis and ASIS

can palpate femoral pulse

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2
Q

where is the mid-point of the inguinal ligament

A

halfway between pubic tubercle and ASIS

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3
Q

name the contents of the inguinal canal

A
  1. spermatic cord = males
  2. round ligament = females
  3. ilioinguinal nerve
  4. genital branch of genitofemoral nerve
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4
Q

what is a hernia

A

potrusion of organ/fascia through wall of cavity that normally contains it

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5
Q

what is an indirect hernia

A

peritoneal sac enters inguinal canal through deep inguinal ring

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6
Q

what is a direct hernia

A

peritoneal sac enters inguinal canal through posterior wall of inguinal canal

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7
Q

name the 3 fascial layers of the spermatic cord

A
  1. external spermatic fascia
  2. cremaster muscle and fascia
  3. internal spermatic fascia
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8
Q

name the contents of the spermatic cord

A

vas deferens
testicular artery
pampiniform plexus of veins/nerves/lymphatics

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9
Q

name the sac which surrounds the testes

A

tunica vaginalis

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10
Q

name the 3 arteries of the spermatic cord

A
  1. testicular artery
  2. artery of vas deferens
  3. cremastic artery
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11
Q

name the 3 veins of the spermatic cord

A
  1. testicular vein
  2. vein of vas deferens
  3. cremasteric vein
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12
Q

name the 3 nerves of the spermatic cord and what do they supply

A
  1. ilioinguinal = 1/3rd genital skin sensation
  2. genitofemoral = cremaster
  3. sympathetic = vas deferens/testicular pain
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13
Q

what vertebral level are the kindeys

A

T12 - L3

right slightly lower

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14
Q

describe the path of blood supply to the kidney

A 
abdominal aorta to renal arteries
= divide into interlobar arteries
= divide into arcuate arteries
= divide into interlobular arteries
= divide into afferent arterioles
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15
Q

name the blood supply of the outer 2/3rd of the renal cortex

A

peritubular network supply nephrons and tubules

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16
Q

name the blood supply to the inner 1/3rd of renal cortex

A

vasa recta = long straight arteries

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17
Q

describe the venous drainage of the kidneys

A

renal veins leave hilum anterior to renal arteries

= directly to IVC

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18
Q

describe the ureter

A

25cm runs from kidneys to bladder

abdominal part/pelvic part

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19
Q

name the blood supply to the ureter

A

abdominal = renal artery and testicular/ovarian artery

pelvic part = sup/inf vesical arteries

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20
Q

where do sensory fibres from the ureter enter the spinal cord and what is the significance of this

A

T11 to L2 = referred pain

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21
Q

describe the inner wall of the bladder

A

has ruggae = can expand

trigone = smooth

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22
Q

name the specialised smooth muscle of the bladder

A

detrusor muscle

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23
Q

describe the internal sphincter of the bladder in males

A

circular smooth muscle fibres

autonomic control

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24
Q

describe the internal sphincter of the bladder in females

A

functional so no muscle present

formed by bladder neck and proximal urethra

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25
Q

describe the blood supply to the bladder

A

superior vesical branch of internal iliac vessels
males = inferior vesical artery as well
females = vaginal arteries as well

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26
Q

describe the venous drainage of the bladder

A

vesical venous plexus = empty into internal iliac veins

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27
Q

what nerve supplies sympathetic nerves to the bladder and what is its role

A

hypogastric T12-L2 = relaxation of detrusor muscles

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28
Q

what nerve supplies parasympathetic nerves to the bladder and what is its role

A

pelvic nerve S2-S4 = contraction of detrusor muscles

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29
Q

what nerve supplies somatic nerves to the bladder and what is its role

A

pudendal nerve S2-S4 = innervates external urethral sphincter = voluntary control over micturition

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30
Q

describe the parts of the male urethra

A 
15-20cm long
pre-prostatic
prostatic = widest
membranous = narrowest
spongy
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31
Q

name the blood supply to each part of the male urethra

A 
prostatic = inferior vesical artery
membranous = bulbourethral artery
spongy = branches of internal pudental artery
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32
Q

name the nerve supply of the male urethra

A

prostatic plexus = sympathetic/parasympathetic/visceral fibres

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33
Q

describe the female urethra

A

approx 4cm long
open directly onto perineum = vestibule
skenes glands = 2 mucous glands either side

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34
Q

name the blood supply and nerve supply to the female urethra

A

internal pudendal arteries

pudendal nerve

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35
Q

name the 5 muscles of the posterior abdominal wall

A
  1. iliacus
  2. psoas major
  3. psoas minor
  4. quadratus lumborum
  5. diaphragm
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36
Q

name the attachments, action and innervation of the quadratus lumborum

A

iliac crest to L1-L4 transverse processes
extension/lateral flexion of vertebral column
anterior rami of T12-L4

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37
Q

name the attachments, action and innervation of psoas major

A

transverse processes of T12-L5 to femur
flexion of thigh/ lateral flexion vertebral column
anterior rami of L1-L3

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38
Q

name the attachments, action and innervation of psoas minor

A

vertebral bodies T12-L1 to superior ramis of pubic bone
flexion of vertebral column
anterior rami of L1 spinal nerve

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39
Q

name the attachments, action and innervation of the iliacus

A

iliac fossa/AIIS to femur
flexion of thigh
femoral nerve L2-L4

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40
Q

what is the lumbar plexus and what is it formed by

A

network of nerve fibres that supplies the lower limb

formed by anterior rami of lumbar spinal nerves L1-L4, some of T12

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41
Q

what is the order of the nerves of the lumbar plexus from t12 to l4

A 
iliohypogastric
ilioinguinal
lateral cutaneous
femoral
oburator
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42
Q

what does the iliohypogastric nerve innervate

A

posterolateral gluteal skin in pubic region

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43
Q

what does the ilioinguinal nerve innervate

A

skin on upper middle thigh
male = root of penis/scrotum
female = mons pubis/labia majora

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44
Q

what does the genitofemoral nerve innervate

A

cremaster muscle

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45
Q

what does the lateral cutaneous nerve innervate

A

anterior/lateral thigh down to knee

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46
Q

what does the obturator nerve innervate

A

skin over medial thigh

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47
Q

what does the femoral nerve innervate

A

skin of anterior thigh/medial leg

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48
Q

what epithelium is the ectocervix

A

stratified squamos non-keratinising epithelium

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49
Q

what epithelium is the endocervix

A

mucus secreting stratified simple columnar

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50
Q

describe an anteverted uterus

A

rotated forward towards anterior surface of body with respect to the vagina

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51
Q

describe an anteflexed uterus

A

flexed toward anterior surface of body with respect to the cervix

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52
Q

name the 3 layers of the uterus

A

peritoneum
myometrium
endometrium = deep stratum basalis and superficial stratum basalis

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53
Q

which layer undergoes hypertrophy and hyperplasua during pregnancy in order to expel the foetus at birth

A

myometrium

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54
Q

which layer proliferates in response to oestrogen and becomes secretory in response to progesterone and is shed in menstruation

A

superficial stratum functionalis

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55
Q

what is the role of the broad ligament

A

attaches sides of uterus to pelvis

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56
Q

what is the role of the round ligament

A

extend from uterine horns to labia majora via inguinal canal = maintains anteverted position

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57
Q

what is the role of the ovarian ligament

A

attaches ovaries to uterus

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58
Q

what is the role of the cardinal ligament

A

= base of broad ligament
attaches cervix to lateral pelvic walls
contains uterine artery and vein

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59
Q

what is the role of the uterosacral ligament

A

attaches cervix to sacrum

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60
Q

what supplies blood to the uterus

A

uterine artery from the internal iliac artery

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61
Q

what provides venous drainage from the uterus

A

plexus in broad ligament = drain into uterine veins

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62
Q

what provides sympathetic innervation to the uterus

A

uterovaginal plexus

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63
Q

what provides parasympathetic fibres of the uterus

A

pelvic splanchnic nerves S2-S4

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64
Q

what is the fornix

A

recess formed between margin of cervix and vagginal wall

anterior/posterior/2 x lateral

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65
Q

where is the uterine artery found

A

base of broad ligament in close relation to ureter

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66
Q

where is the vagina

A

upper 2/3rd in pelvic cavity

lower 1/3rd in perineum

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67
Q

how long is the vagina

A

9cm

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68
Q

name the 4 layers of the vagina

A
  1. stratified squamous epithelium
  2. elastic lamina propria
  3. fibromuscular layer
  4. adventitia
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69
Q

what is the role of the stratified squamous epithelium in the vagina

A

protection/lubrication by cervical mucus

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70
Q

what is the blood supply to the vagina

A

uterine/vaginal arteries

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71
Q

what is the venous drainage of the vagina

A

vaginal venous plexus to internal iliac veins

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72
Q

what is the nerve supply of the vagina

A

superior part = inferior fibres of uteroveginal plexus

inferior part = deep perineal nerve

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73
Q

name the layer that surrounds each cavernous body in the penis

A

tunica albuginea

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74
Q

what is the role of the suspensory ligament in the penis

A

connects erectile bodies to pubic symphysis

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75
Q

what is the role of the fundiform ligament in the penis

A

runs down from linea alba = surrounds penis and attaches it to pubic symphysis

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76
Q

describe the blood supply to the penis

A

internel iliac to internal pudendal artery to

  1. dorsal arteries of penis
  2. deep arteries of penis
  3. bulbourethral artery
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77
Q

what is the nerve supply to the penis

A

S2-S4 spinal cord segments/spinal ganglia

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78
Q

name the 3 zones of the prostate

A

central zone
transitional zone
peripheral zone

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79
Q

what is the role of the seminal vesicle

A

secrete thick alkaline fluid = forms bulk of seminal fluid

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80
Q

what innervates the prostate gland

A

inferior hypogastric plexus

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81
Q

how is the ejaculatory duct created

A

seminal vesical duct merges with vas deferens

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82
Q

what is benign prostatic hyperplasia

A

benign enlargement of the prostate

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83
Q

what is the pelvic floor formed from

A

levator ani and coccygeus

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84
Q

what innervates the levator ani muscles

A

branches of pudendal nerve S2-S4

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85
Q

what are the 3 roles of the pelvic floor muscles

A
  1. support of abdominopelvic viscera
  2. resistance to increases in intra-pelvic abdominal pressure
  3. urinary/faecal continence
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86
Q

what produces human chorionic gonadotrophin and what is its role

A

produced by trophoblasts
stimulate oestrogen and progesterone secretion
decreases as placenta grows

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87
Q

what produces prolactin and what is its role

A

produced by anteiror pituitary
increases cells that produce milk
prevents ovulation = not reliable

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88
Q

what produces relaxin and what is its role

A

produced by ovary and placenta
high in early pregnancy
limits uterine activity, softens cervix

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89
Q

what is the role of oestrogen in pregnancy

A

produced throughout pregnancy
regulates progesterone
prepares uterus for baby, breasts for lactation

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90
Q

what is the role of progesterone in pregnancy

A

prevents miscarriage
builds up endometrium for placental support
prevents contractions

91
Q

what produces oxytocin and what is its role

A

produced by posterior pituitary gland
stimulates uterine contractions
triggers caring reproductive behaviours
synthetic drug used to induce labour

92
Q

what produces prostoglandins and what is their role

A

produced by uterine tissue

initiates labour

93
Q

what is parturition

A

birth process = successful transition form intra-uterine to extra-uterine life

94
Q

what is cervical ripening

A

growth and remodelling of the cervix prior to labour

95
Q

describe the events of prelabour 4 steps

A
  1. Stress = CRH release = ACTH release = cortisol release -= oestrogen release
  2. Oestrogen release = inhibits uterine progesterone release = uterine contractions
  3. Prostaglandins (PGF2a) and relaxin (from ovaries) relax walls of cervix = dilation
  4. Baby pushing onto cervix = oxytocin release = uterine contractions (positive FB)
96
Q

what are the chemicals released from the foetus to signal labour

A

oxytocin
vasopressin
cytokines

97
Q

what chemical is the maternal signal of labour

A

oxytocin

98
Q

describe the 3 events of the active phase of labour

A
  1. stronger, higher frequency contractions
  2. full dilation resulting in foetal expulsion
  3. placental expulsion
99
Q

when does the placenta begin developing and when has it implanted

A

at blastocyst implantation

11th day post ovulation

100
Q

what does the placenta provide for the developing foetus

A

nutrition
gas exchange
waste removal
endocrine/immune support

101
Q

what are the 3 main functions of the placenta

A

metabolism
transport
endocrine

102
Q

what is synthesised in placental metabolism and what does it provide

A

glycogen
cholesterol
fatty acids
= provides nutrient and energy

103
Q

what does the placenta transport

A 
gases/nutrition
water/glucose/vitamins
hormones (steroid)
electrolytes
maternal antibodies
waste products
drugs and metabolites
infectious agents
104
Q

name 4 placental hormones

A
  1. hCG
  2. progesterone
  3. oestrogen
  4. relaxin
105
Q

what is placenta accreta

A

doesnt adhere properly to wall of uterus

absence of decidua basalis

106
Q

what is placenta praevia

A

placenta overlies internal os = abnormal bleeding = C section

107
Q

describe the hormone changes at puberty

A

increase GnRH

increase FSH, LH, GH and sex steroids

108
Q

what is the effect of FSH on the ovary

A

causes ovarian follicles to mature
leads to 1 dominant follicle developing
acts on granulosa cells = follicle secrete oestrogen

109
Q

what is the effect of LH on the ovary

A

release of secondary oocyte from dominant follicle = fusion of follicular and ovarian membrane
acts on thecal cells = allow secrete oestrogen

110
Q

what is the effect of oestrogen on the endometrium

A

proliferate
increase production of glands
synthesis of progesterone receptors on surface

111
Q

what is the effect of progesterone on the endometrium

A

proliferate and change to secretory

bind to progesterone receptors

112
Q

what is the effect of oestrogen on the cervix

A

secrete abundant and watery mucus before/during ovulation for best possible sperm entry

113
Q

what is the effect of progesterone on the cervix

A

produce thick mucus secretions = act as plug prevent bacteria entry

114
Q

when is inhibin secreted and what is its role

A

= inhibit FSH
increases during late follicular phase
remains high in luteal phase
decrease as corpus luteum regenerates

115
Q

when must sperm enter the uterus for fertilisation to occur

A

5 days before/1 day after ovulation

116
Q

how long can sperm survive

A

4-6 days

117
Q

what is a renal corpuscle

A

whole unit of glomerular tuft and bowmans capsule

118
Q

name the layers that fluid is filtered across in the kidney

A
  1. endothelial cells
  2. basement membrane/basal lamina = negatively charged
  3. between foot processes of podocytes
119
Q

what are the 2 types of nephron and what are their proportions

A 
15% = juxtamedullary = renal corpuscle in part of cortex closest to medulla
85% = cortical = renal corpuscle in outer cortex
120
Q

what is the glomerular filtration rate

A

volume of fluid filtered from glomeruli into bowman’s space per unit time

121
Q

what is the oncotic pressure in the bowman’s capsule

A

0

122
Q

what is the calculation for GFR

A

filtration coefficient x glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure - bowmans hydrostation pressure - osmotic/oncotic pressure of glomerular capillary

123
Q

what is the average GFR for a 70kg person

A

125mil/min

124
Q

what determines GFR

A

net filtration pressure
permeability of corpuscular membranes
surface area

125
Q

what is osmolality

A

osmoles of solute per kg of solvent

126
Q

what is osmolarity

A

osmoles of solute per litre of solution

127
Q

what 2 things stimulate the release of renin

A
  1. reduced NaCl to DCT detected by macula densa cells

2. reduced perfusion pressure in kidney detected by baroreceptors in afferent arteriole

128
Q

what cells release renin

A

granular cells of the juxtaglomerular apparatus

129
Q

describe the RAAS system in 4 steps

A
  1. renin secreted
  2. cleaves angiotensinogen to angiotensin 1
  3. angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2 by ACE
  4. angiotensin 2 stimulates release of aldosterone from adrenal medulla
130
Q

where is angiotensin converting enzyme found (ACE)

A

epithelium of kidney/lungs

131
Q

what are 5 effects of angiotensin 2

A
  1. aldosterone release
  2. vasoconstriction
  3. Na+ reabsorption in PCT
  4. thirst
  5. ADH release
132
Q

what is the effect of aldosterone and where does it act

A

CD
increase ENaC channels = increase Na+ absorption increase K+ excretion
DCT
increase Na+ absorption

133
Q

where is aldosterone secreted from

A

zona glomerulosa of adrenal gland

134
Q

where is ADH made

A

hypothalamus

135
Q

where is ADH secreted from

A

posterior pituitary

136
Q

what regulates ADH secretion and why is it secreted

A

osmoreceptors in hypothalamus detect osmotic pressure of plasma = high osmolality = ADH released

137
Q

what acts faster ADH or aldosterone and why

A

ADH is steroid so is faster than peptide hormone aldosterone

138
Q

what is the effect on the kidneys of parathyroid hormone

A

increases Ca2+ reabsorption = decrease urinary Ca2+ levels

blocks phosphate reabsorption in PCT

139
Q

where and why is parathyroid hormone released

A

released by parathyroid glands in response to decreased Ca2+

140
Q

where is atrial natriuretic peptide synthesised and secreted

A

cardiac atria

141
Q

what is the effect of atrial natriuretic peptide (3)

A
  1. inhibit Na+ reabsorption by blocking ENaCs in collecting duct + decrease Na+ reabsorption in DCT
  2. acts as renal vasodilator = increases GFR = increase Na+ excretion
  3. inhibits renin secretion = inhibit RAAS
142
Q

where is erythropoietin (EPO) produced and what does it do

A

peritubular cells in interstitial space of renal cortex = stimulate bone marrow maturation of RBCs

143
Q

when does EPO increase and decrease

A 
increase = anaemia, altitude
decrease = polythaemia, renal failure
144
Q

name the 3 main hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex

A
  1. aldosterone
  2. cortisol
  3. corticosteroid
145
Q

what layer of the adrenal cortex produces mineralcocorticoids

A

zona glomerulosa

146
Q

what layer of the adrenal cortex produces glucorcorticoids e.g. cortisol (+ small amount androgens)

A

zona fasiculata

147
Q

what layer of the adrenal cortex produces androgens (+ small amount cortisol)

A

zona reticularis

148
Q

what is stress

A

a real/perceived threat to homeostasis

149
Q

what is the normal function of cortisol

A

maintenance of homeostasis in absence of external stress

150
Q

name 3 results of chronic stress

A

severe decrease:

  1. bone density
  2. immune function
  3. reproductive fertility
151
Q

what is the main site for adrenaline synthsesis

A

adrenal medulla

152
Q

describe the proportions of catecholamines released during fight or flight and their roles

A 
adrenaline = 80% = vasoconstriction
noradrenaline = 20% = vasodiltation
153
Q

what do alpha receptors have a higher affinity for

A

noradrenaline

154
Q

what do beta receptors have a higher affinity for

A

adrenaline

155
Q

name 4 things that occur in a flight or fight response

A
  1. gluconeogenesis in liver/muscle
  2. lipolysis in adipose tissue
  3. tachycardia and cardiac contractility
  4. redistribution of circulating volume
156
Q

whats the commonest urinary buffer

A

alkaline phosphate

157
Q

what is titratable acidity

A

quantity of base needed to bring base to pH 7.4

= does not increase in response to acidosis

158
Q

what is the equation for net acid excretion

A

titratable acidity + ammonium - HCO3-

159
Q

name the physical changes of a male at puberty

A
  1. testicular enlargement
  2. body hair growth
  3. growth spurt
  4. spermatogenesis begins
  5. acne/body odour/mood changes
160
Q

name the physical changes of a female at puberty

A
  1. breast development
  2. body hair
  3. growth spurt
  4. menarche
  5. acne/body odour/mood changes
161
Q

what age for puberty in males

A

9-14

162
Q

what age for puberty in females

A

8-14

163
Q

what age for menopause

A

48-52

164
Q

what are the short term signs of menopause (5)

A
  1. hot flushes/sweats/headaches
  2. irritability/lethargy/panic attack/depression
  3. shorter menstrual cycle
  4. altered blood loss
  5. dry skin
165
Q

what are the long term signs of menopause (5)

A
  1. vaginal dryness
  2. decrease libido
  3. hair loss/thinning
  4. loss in compliance
  5. general aches and pains
166
Q

what is responsible for people having darker skin

A

melanocytes producing more melanin

167
Q

what is the normal skin pH

A

5.5

168
Q

what is desquamation

A

mature corneocytes are shed from the surface of epithelium to make room for new cells in basal layer + degradation of extracellular corneo-desmosomes by proteases

169
Q

what is the role of Vitamin D in the skin

A

essential in producing anti-microbial peptides = defend skin from bacteria/viruses

170
Q

mneumonic for layers of epidermis

A

come lets get sun burned

171
Q

where is vitamin D synthesised in the skin

A

stratum spinosum

172
Q

what is the role of the lipid lamellae

A

keeps water inside skin cells

173
Q

what causes red skin

A

dilation of blood vessels due to lymphocyte activity

174
Q

what causes itchy skin

A

stimulation of nerves

175
Q

what causes dry skin

A

skin cells leaking due to lymphocyte activity

176
Q

what do irritants do to the skin

A

break down healthy skin

177
Q

what do allergens do to the skin

A

trigger flare ups by penetrating into skin and causing reaction

178
Q

how do allergens cause inflammation

A

penetrate into skin
met by lymphocytes
lymphocytes release chemicals which cause inflammation

179
Q

what are the 3 signs of inflammation

A

red skin
dry skin
itchy skin

180
Q

what is the function of the dermis

A

strength and elasticity

181
Q

name the 2 layers of the dermis

A

papillary dermis

reticular dermis

182
Q

where are sebaceous glands and sweat glands found in the skin

A

reticular dermis

183
Q

what are the functions of the subcutaneous layer

A

insulation
energy store
shock absorbent
= LOTS OF ADIPOCYTES

184
Q

what is glucogenesis

A

glycogen to glucose

185
Q

what is glucogenolysis

A

glucose to glycogen

186
Q

what is gluconeogenesis

A

amino acids/lactate to glucose

187
Q

where is incretin secreted

A

endothelial cells of GI tract

188
Q

what is renal clearance

A

volume of plasma from which a substance is completely removed

189
Q

what increases GFR

A

afferent dilation

efferent constriction

190
Q

what decreases GFR

A

afferent constriction

efferent dilation

191
Q

what is autoregulation in the kidney

A

when high blood flow in afferent arteriole = walls stretch = smooth muscle contract = arteriolar constriction

192
Q

how do macula densa cells stimualte the release of renin and what is this process called

A

macula densa detect NaCl = release prostaglandins = stimulate granular cells to releases renin
TUBULOGLOMERULAR FEEDBACK

193
Q

what transporter is used in the ascending limb of the loop of henle

A

NKCC2 transporter

194
Q

kidney response to respiratory acidosis

A

increase H+ secretion
increase bicarb production
increase ammonia secretion

195
Q

kidney response to respiratory alkalosis

A

decrease H+ secretion

increase bicarb secretion

196
Q

3 effects of ADH

A
  1. increase water permeability in DCT and CD = aquaporins
  2. increase urea permeability in collecting duct
  3. increase Na+ reabsorption in ascending limb
197
Q

when is cortisol released and what is the action of cortisol

A

released in stress/low blood glucose

stimulate gluconeogenesis and fat/protein metabolism

198
Q

5 layers of skin

A
  1. stratum corneum
  2. stratum lucidum
  3. stratum granulosum
  4. stratum spinsoum
  5. stratum basale
199
Q

describe the papillary dermis

A

rete ridges
type 3 collagen
fibroblasts

200
Q

describe the reticular dermis

A

type 1 collagen

well organised elastic fibres

201
Q

describe the skin barrier

A

lipid lamellae above cells = corneocytes held together by corneodesmasomes

202
Q

what hormones does the hypothalamus secrete (4)

A
  1. gonadotrophin releasing hormone
  2. growth hormone releasing hormone
  3. thyrotropin releasing hormone
  4. corticotropin releasing hormone
203
Q

what hormones does the anterior pituitary secrete (6)

A
  1. follicle stimulating hormone and leutinising hormone
  2. growth hormone
  3. thyroid stimulating hormone
  4. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone
  5. prolactin
204
Q

does the posterior pituitary secrete hormones

A

no just stores hypothalamic hormones

205
Q

what hormones are released from the posterior pituitary

A

vasopressin

oxytocin

206
Q

what cells are in islets of langerhans and what do they secrete

A 
alpha = glucagon
beta = insulin
delta = somatostatin
207
Q

what does insulin do

A

decrease hepatic gluconeogenesis
increase glucose storage
decrease lipolysis (= decreased ketogenesis)

208
Q

what does glucagon do

A

increase gluconeogenesis

stimulate lipolysis = more ketogenesis

209
Q

describe what happens when there is a high level of plasma glucose

A

high glucose
detected by Beta cells
insulin released
increase glucose uptake in muscles/fat

210
Q

describe the mechanism of insulin release in 5 steps

A
  1. glucose into beta cell via GLUT 2
  2. glucokinase metabolise glucose = krebs and glycolysis producing ATP
  3. ATP close K+ channels = no efflux = depolarisation
  4. depolarisation = opens calcium channels = influx Ca2+
  5. allows exocytosis of insulin
211
Q

what is the difference between endogenous and exogenous insulin

A

endogenous has C peptide attached

212
Q

describe the mechanism of insulin action

A
  1. insulin binds to receptor on target cell
  2. increased exocytosis of GLUT 4 vesicles to cell membrane
  3. increase uptake glucose through GLUT 4
213
Q

what is the role of incretins

A

pre-emptively amplifies the effect of insulin

214
Q

what is the blood and nerve supply to the thyroid

A

superior and inferior thyroid artery

parasympathetic = vagus

215
Q

what are the different cell types in the thyroid and what do they do

A

follicular cells = surround colloid, form follicles = produce T3/T4
C cells = parafollicular cells = produce calcitonin

216
Q

describe the mechanism of thyroid hormone synthesis

A
  1. TSH released from anterior pituitary
  2. increase iodine uptake Na+/I symporter
  3. thyroglobulin iodinised = catalysed by thryoperoxidase
  4. thyroglobulin + tyrosine = thyroxine (T4)
217
Q

what is T3

A

triiodothyronine = active hormone

218
Q

what is T4

A

thyroxine - deiodinised in peripheral tissues to form T3

most common

219
Q

how are T3/T4 carried in bloodstream

A

bound to albumin

220
Q

name some changes in pregnancy

A 
greater CO
greater blood volume
greater alveolar ventilation
greater inspiratory volume
decrease BP
linea nigra
striae gravidarum
221
Q

name the 8 stages of fertilisation

A
  1. capacitation
  2. acrosome reaction
  3. syngamy
  4. cleavage
  5. compaction
  6. cavitation/expansion
  7. hatching
  8. implantation
222
Q

where does spermiogenesis take place

A

seminiferous tubules by sertoli cells

223
Q

what is the point of the blood testis barrier

A
  1. prevents chemicals from blood affecting seminiferous tubules
  2. helps retain luminal fluid
  3. proper conditions for cell development/differentiation
224
Q

what is menopause

A

cessation of menstruation due to degradation of follicles = decrease oestrogen = increase FSH/LH

Phase 1 mine (12 decks)

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