Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Biology Unit 2 > STUDY GUIDE > Flashcards

STUDY GUIDE Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what does the cell cycle consist of?

A

Interphase

Mitotic (M) phase (Mitosis and Cytokinesis)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

In the cell cycle what is the function of Interphase?

A

Cell growth and copying of chromosomes in preparation for cell division

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What are the subphases of Interphase?

A 
G1 Phase ("first gap")
S Phase ("synthesis")
G2 Phase ("second gap")
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

In what phase are the chromosomes duplicated?

A

S phase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

In what phase does the cell divide?

A

Mitotic phase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

The cell (blank) during all three phases

A

grows

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

A particular human cell might undergo one division in (blank)

A

24 hours

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What are the five phases of Mitosis?

A 
Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

(blank) overlaps the latter stages of mitosis

A

Cytokinesis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

List what happens during G2 of Interphase

A
  • Nuclear envelope encloses nucleus
  • 2 centrosomes have formed (duplication)
  • Chromosomes cannot be seen individually
  • Nucleous contains 1+ nucleoli
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Regions in animal cells that organize the microtubules of the mitotic spindle

A

Centrosomes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Microtubule organizing center

A

mitotic spindle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

each centrosome contains (blank) centrioles

A

two

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

a structure in centrosome composed of a cylinder of microtubule triplets

A

centriole

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

List what happens during Prophase

A
  • Chromatin fibers coiled
  • Chromosomes condense and observable with light microscope
  • Nucleoli disappear
  • Each duplicated chromosome appears as 2 identical sister chromatids
  • Mitotic spindle forms
  • Centrosomes move away from each other by microtubules
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Chromatin

A

the entire complex of DNA and protein

building material of chromsomes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Sister chromatids

A

Joined copies (at centromere by cohesin) of original chromosome

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Composed of centrosomes and microtubules that extend from them

A

Mitotic spindle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Radial arrays of shorter microtubules that extend from the centrosomes

A

asters (“stars”)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

List what happens during prometaphase

A
  • nuclear envelope fragments
  • microtubules can invade
  • chromsomes more condensed
  • each of two chromatids of each chromosome has kinetochore
  • some microtubules attach to kinetochores
  • nonkinetochore microtubules interact with others from opposite pole
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

specialized protein structure at the centromere

A

kinetochore

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

what do kinetochore microtubules do?

A

jerk chromosomes back and forth

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

List what happens during metaphase

A
  • centrosomes at opposite poles
  • chromosomes align at metaphase plate
  • kinetochores of sister chromatids are attached to kinetochore microtubules from opposite poles
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

an imaginary plane that is equidistant between the spindle’s two poles

A

metaphase plate

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

List what happens during Anaphase

A
  • short
  • chohesin proteins cleaved (2 sister chromatids of each pair separate to become chromosomes)
  • daughter chromosomes move to opposite ends of cell as kinetochore microtubules shorten
  • cell elongates
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

In anaphase, where do the chromosomes move to first?

A

centromere

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

What has happened by the end of anaphase?

A

two ends of cell have equivalent and complete collections of chromosomes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

How many different kinds of gametes can individuals with each of the following genotypes produce? AA

A

1 kind of gamete (A)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

How many different kinds of gametes can individuals with each of the following genotypes produce? aa

A

1 kind of gamete (a)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

How many different kinds of gametes can individuals with each of the following genotypes produce? Aa

A

2 kinds of gametes (A or a)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

How many different kinds of gametes can individuals with each of the following genotypes produce? AaBB

A

2 kinds of gametes (either AB o aB)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

How many different kinds of gametes can individuals with each of the following genotypes produce? AaBb

A

4 kinds of gametes (AB, Ab, aB, and ab)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

How many different kinds of gametes can individuals with each of the following genotypes produce?AaBbCcDdEeFf

A

64

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

General rule for determining the number of different gametes organisms can produce

A

Number of different kinds of gametes = 2n, where n= number of heterzygous alleles

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

List what happens during Telophase

A
  • 2 daughter nuclei form in cell
  • Nuclear envelope reforms
  • Nuceloli reappear
  • Chromosomes less condensed
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

The eukarotic cell is regulated by a (blank)

A

molecular control system

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

The cell cycle is driven by (blank) in the (blank)

A

specific chemical signals present in the cytoplasm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

The sequential events of the cell cycle are directed by a distinct (blank)

A

cell cycle control system

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

the cell cycle is regulated at certain (blank)

A

checkpoints

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Animal cells generally have built-in stop signals that halt the cell cycle at checkpoints (blank) by go-ahead signals

A

until overridden

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

What checkpoint seems to be the most important for most cells?

A

G1

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

What happens if a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint?

A

It will usually complete the S, G2, and M phases and divide

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

What happens if a cell does not receive a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint?

A

It will exit the cell cycle and go to he non-dividing state of G0

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

What are the 3 major checkpoints?

A

G1, G2, and M

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

“restriction point” in mammalian cells

A

G1 checkpoint

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

G1 checkpoint examples include:

A
  • Adequate cell size
  • Sufficient nutrients
  • Undamaged DNA
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

M checkpoint examples include:

A
  • chromosomes attached to spindle
  • chromosomes segregate
  • MPF absent
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

G2 checkpoint examples include:

A
  • chromosomes replicated
  • undamaged DNA
  • MPF activated and present
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

2 types of regulatory proteins involved in cell cycle control

A

cyclins

cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

Cdks activity (blank) during the cell cycle

A

fluctuates

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

cyclin-CDK complex that triggers a cell’s passage past the G2 checkpoint into the M phase

A

MPF

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

What does MPF stand for?

A

Maturation-Promoting Factor

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

To be active, kinases must (blank)

A

be attached to cyclin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

The peak of MPF activity corresponds with the (blank) of cyclin concentration

A

peak

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

Why are cancer cells abnormal? Simple answer

A

They divide excessively and invade other tissue

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

Important properties of cancer cells

A
  • do not stop dividing when growth factors depleted: often due to mutation in signaling pathway that conveys the growth factor’s signal
  • abnormal cell cycle system causes growth
  • stop dividing at random points not checkpoints
  • immortal
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

Single cell in a issue undergoes (blank) which converts normal cell to cancer cell

A

transformation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

If a transformed is not recognized what may happen?

A

proliferate and from tumor

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

mass of abnormal tissue within normal tissue

A

tumor

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

What are the two types of tumors?

A

Benign and malignant

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

Abnormal cells that remain at original site lead to what

A

Benign (not cancer)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

Cells that are able to relocate and survive, impairing multiple organs

A

Metastatic cancer

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

(Blank) are the original source of genetic diversity

A

Mutations

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

changes in an organism’s DNA

A

Mutations

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

Mutations create different versions of genes called (blank)

A

alleles

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

Three mechanisms that contribute to genetic variation

A
  • Independent assortment
  • Crossing over
  • Random fertilization
67
Q

Homologous pairs of chromosomes orient randomly at metaphase I of meiosis

A

Independent assortment

68
Q

The first meiotic division results in each pair sorting its (blank) into daughter cells independently of every other pair

A

maternal and paternal homologs

69
Q

Each pair of chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal homologs into daughter cells independently of the other pairs

A

independent assortment

70
Q

Independent assortment

A

Each pair of chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal homologs into daughter cells independently of the other pairs

71
Q

In independent assortment, (blank) represents one outcome of all possible combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes

A

daughter cell

72
Q

The number of combinations possible when chromosomes assort independently into gametes is (blank)

A

2n, n = haploid #

73
Q

In humans, there are (blank) possible combinations of chromosomes

A

2 to the 23

74
Q

Crossing over produces (blank), which combine DNA inserted from each parent.

A

recombinant chromosomes

75
Q

When does crossing over begin? How?

A

Prophase I

Homologous chromosomes pair up loosely along their lengths gene by gene

76
Q

In a single cross over event, homologous portions of (blank) trade places.

A

two non-sister chromatids

77
Q

Crossing over contributes to genetic variation by combining (blank) from two parents into (blank)

A

DNA

Single chromosome

78
Q

any sperm can fuse with any ovum

A

random fertilization

79
Q

the fusion of two gametes produces (blank)

A

zygote

80
Q

the fusion is when two (blank) become (blank)

A

haploids, diploid

81
Q

an idea that genetic material from the two parents blends together which will lead to a uniform population

A

blending hypothesis

82
Q

The blending hypothesis also fails to explain other phenomena of inheritance such as (blank)

A

traits reappearing after skipping a generation

83
Q

Parents pass on discrete heritable units (genes) that retain their separate identities in offspring

A

particulate hypothesis

84
Q

Mendel documented a (blank) through his experiments with (blank)

A

particulate mechanism, peas

85
Q

heritable feature that varies among individuals

A

character

86
Q

Mendel chose (blank) as traits

A

easily recognizable phenotypes

87
Q

variant for a character

A

trait

88
Q

Flower color is a (blank), while the specific color is a (blank)

A

character, trait

89
Q

In a typical experiment, Mendel mated 2 contrasting, true-breeding varieties, a process called (blank)

A

hybridization

90
Q

true-breeding parents are called the (blank)

A

P generation

91
Q

hybrid offspring of the P generation are called the (blank)

A

F1 generation

92
Q

when F1 individuals self pollinate or cross-pollinate with other F1 hybrids, the (blank) is produced

A

F2 generation

93
Q

2 fundamental principles of heredity

A

law of segregation and law of independent assortment

94
Q

Mendel reasoned that the heritable factor for white-flowers did no disappear in the F1 plants, but was somehow (blank) when the purple-flower factor was present

A

hidden, or masked

95
Q

Purple flower = (blank) trait

A

dominant

96
Q

White flower = (blank) trait

A

recessive

97
Q

What Mendel called a “heritable” factor, is what we now call a (blank)

A

gene

98
Q

Mendel’s four concepts

A

1) Alternative versions of genes (alleles) account for variations in inherited characters
2) For each character, an organism inherits 2 alleles (1 from each parent)
3) If the two alleles at a locus differ, then one (dominant) determines the organism’s appearance, and the other (recessive) has no noticeable effect on appearance
4) Law of segregation- two alleles for a heritable character separate during gamete formation and end up in different gametes

99
Q

allele pairs separate during gamete production and sex cells carry one allele for each inherited character

A

law of segregation

100
Q

Each gene resides at a specific (blank) on a specific (blank)

A

locus, chromosome

101
Q

two identical alleles

A

homozygous

102
Q

two different alleles

A

heterozygous

103
Q

heterzygotes are not

A

true-breeding

104
Q

phenotype

A

physical appearance

105
Q

genotype

A

genetic makeup

106
Q

How can we tell the genotype of an individual with the dominant phenotype?

A

testcross

107
Q

Breeding the mystery individual with a homozygous recessive individual. If any offspring display the recessive phenotype, the mystery parent must be heterozygous

A

Testcross

108
Q

individuals that are heterozygous for one character

A

monohybrids

109
Q

A cross between individuals that are heterozygous for one character

A

monohybrid cross

110
Q

Crossing two true-breeding parents differing in two characters produces dihybrids in the F1 generation, heterozygous for both characters

A

Dihybrid cross

111
Q

Can determine whether two characters are transmitted to offspring as a package or independently

A

Dihybrid cross

112
Q

Using a dihybrid cross, Mendel developed the (blank)

A

law of independent assortment

113
Q

Each pair of alleles segregates independently o each other pair of alleles during gamete formation

A

Law of independent assortment

114
Q

Genes are packaged into gametes in all possible alllic combinations, as long as each gamete has one allele for each gene

A

Independent assortment

115
Q

dyhybrid cross results in a phenotypic ratio of

A

9:3:3:1

116
Q

the probability that two or more independent events will occur together is the product of their individual probabilities

A

multiplication rule

117
Q

states that the probability that any one of two or more exclusive events will occur is calculated by adding together their individual probabilities

A

addition rule

118
Q

Can be used to figure out the probability that an F2 plant from a monohybrid cross will be heterozygous rather than homozygous

A

addition rule

119
Q

Can be used to predict probability in a F1 monohybrid cross

A

multiplication rule

120
Q

Neither allele is completely dominant and the F1 hybrids have a phenotype somewhere between those of the two parental varieties

A

incomplete dominance

121
Q

What is an example of incomplete dominance?

A

Red snapdragons crossed with white snapdragons and F1 generation = pink

122
Q

Two dominant alleles affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways.

A

Codominance

123
Q

Example of codominance

A

cows or human blood

124
Q

Gene has multiple phenotypic effects

A

Pleiotropy

125
Q

Single gene can affect a number of characteristics in an organism

A

Pleiotropy

126
Q

many genes contributing to a single effect

A

Polygenic trait

127
Q

a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus

A

epistasis

128
Q

What is an example of epistasis?

A

Labrador retrievers coat color

129
Q

Family tree that describes the interrelationships of parents and children across generations.

A

pedigree

130
Q

Inheritance patterns of particular traits can be traced and described using (blank)

A

pedigrees

131
Q

Show up only in individuals homozygous for the allele.

A

Recessively inherited disorders

132
Q

Heterozygous individuals who carry the recessive allele but are phenotypically normal

A

carriers

133
Q

Most individuals with recessive disorders are born to (blank)

A

carrier parents

134
Q

Dominant alleles that cause a lethal disease are (blank)

A

rare and arise by mutation

135
Q

a gene that is located on either sex chromosome is called a (blank)

A

sex-linked gene

136
Q

Who discovered evidence associating a specific gene with a specific chromosome?

A

Thomas Morgan

137
Q

Morgans experiments with (blank) provided convincing evidence that chromosomes are the location of Mendel’s heritable factors.

A

Fruit flies

138
Q

normal phenotypes common in fly populations

A

wild type

139
Q

non-normal traits opposite of wild type

A

mutant

140
Q

What did Mendel find from the fruit fly experiment?

A

Red eyes with female
White eyes with male
White-eyed mutant allele located on the X chromosome

141
Q

For a male fruit fly, a single copy of the mutant allele would confer white eyes, since a male only has one (blank)- no (blank) allele present

A

X chromosome

Wild type

142
Q

Morgan’s finding supported the (blank)

A

chromosome theory of inheritance

143
Q

A chromosome in a diploid organism is (blank) when only one copy is present.

A

Hemizygous

144
Q

Hemizygosity is also observed when one copy of a gene is (blank), or in the heterogamic sex when (blank) is located on a sex chromosome

A

deleted

gene

145
Q

If a phenotype is due to an autosomal recessive allele, then

A
  • individuals must be homozygous
  • if parents of affected individual don’t have trait, then parents are likely heterozygous (carriers)
  • skipped generation
146
Q

If a phenotype is due to an autosomal dominant allele then,

A
  • unaffected offspring are homozygous recessive

- affected offspring have at least one affected parent (homo or hetero)

147
Q

General X-linked inheritance patterns

A
  • phenotype more often in males (need 1 copy not 2)
  • male with mutation only passes allele to daughters
  • daughters who receive mutation are carriers and phenotypically normal
  • mutation can skill generation (male-daughter-son)
148
Q

X linked recessive traits

A
  • male affected more frequently
  • never passed father to son
  • all daughters of affected male carriers
  • skip generation
149
Q

X linked dominant traits

A
  • males and females likely affected equally
  • likely that all daughters affected, no sons
  • does not skip generation
150
Q

List what is happening in Early Prophase I

A
  • chromosomes condense
  • homologs loosely pair and are aligned gene by gene
  • synapsis
  • crossing over
151
Q

List what is happening in middle Prophase I

A
  • synapsis ends with disassemply of complex and chromosomes in pairs moved apart slightly
  • each homologous pair has chiasmata
  • chiasma exists where cross over occured
  • sister chromatid cohesin holds together
  • centrosome movement, spindle formation, and nuclear envelope
152
Q

List what is happening in late Prophase I

A
  • microtubules attach to 2 kinetochores

- homologous pairs move toward metaphase plate

153
Q

List what is happening in Metaphase I

A
  • pairs of homologous chromosomes aligned at metaphase plate
  • chromatids of one homolog attached to kinetochore microtubules
  • those of other homolog attached to other pole km
154
Q

List what is happening in Anaphase I

A
  • breakdown of proteins responsible for sister chromatid cohesion
  • homologs separate
  • homologs move toward opposite poles
  • sister chromatid cohesin persists at centromere so chromatids move as unit
155
Q

List what is happening during Telophase I

A
  • each half of cell has a complete haploid set of duplicated chromosomes
  • each chromosome composed of 2 sister chromatids
  • no chromosome duplication occurs
156
Q

List what is happening during Cytokinesis

A
  • division of cytoplasm
  • forms 2 haploid daughter cells
  • cleavage furrow forms in animal
157
Q

List what is happening during Prophase II

A
  • spindle apparatus forms

- chromsomes (composed of 2 chromatids) move towards metaphase II plate

158
Q

List what is happening during Metaphase II

A
  • chromosomes aligned at metaphase plate
  • sister chromatids not genetically identical
  • kinetochores of sister chromatids attached to microtubules extending from opposite poles
159
Q

List what is happening during Anaphase II

A
  • breakdown of proteins allows chromatids to separate

- chromatids move toward opposite poles as individual chromosomes

160
Q

List what is happening during Telophase II and Cytokinesis

A
  • nuclei form, chromosomes less condensed
  • four daughter cells each with haploid set of chromosomes produced
  • four daughter cells genetically distinct
161
Q

The three events that are unique to meiosis all occur in (blank)

A

meiosis I

162
Q

What are the 3 events that occur that are unique to meiosis?

A

1) Synapsis and crossing over in prophase I
2) Paired homologous chromosomes (tetrads) at metaphase plate instead of individual replicated chromosomes
3) Homologous chromsomes not sister chromatids that separate

163
Q

Synapsis and crossing over in prophase I

A

Homologous chromosomes physically connect and exchange genetic information

Biology Unit 2 (6 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions