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Biology > Structures and functions in living organisms > Flashcards

Structures and functions in living organisms Flashcards

1
Q

What is the order of level of organisation

A

Organelles
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Organ systems

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2
Q

Describe each level of organisation

A

Organelles: specialized subcellular structures found within living cells
Cells : basic structural unit of living organisms
Tissue : groups of cells, either similar structures working together to perform the same function
Organs : groups of tissues, working together to perform specific functions
Organ systems : groups of organs with similar functions, working together to perform body functions

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3
Q

Function of nucleus

A

• contains genetic material
• controls cell activity

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4
Q

Function of cytoplasm

A

• liquid substance where chemical reactions occur
• contains enzymes

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5
Q

Function of cell membrane

A

• controls what enters and leaves the cell

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6
Q

Function of mitochondria

A

• where aerobic respiration reactions occur
• provides energy for the cell

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7
Q

Function of ribosomes

A

• where protein synthesis occurs

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8
Q

Function of chloroplast

A

• where photosynthesis takes place
• contains chlorophyll pigment, which harvests light needed for photosynthesis

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9
Q

Function of permanent vacuole

A

• contains cell sap
• found within cytoplasm
• improves cells rigidity

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10
Q

Function of cell wall

A

• provides strength to cell
• made from cellulose (in plants)
• made from chitin (in fungi)

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11
Q

Biological molecules:

A

Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids

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12
Q

What are carbohydrates

A

• made of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen
• are polymers that break down into simple sugars

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13
Q

What are proteins

A

• made of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen and phosphorus
• are polymers that break down into its monomer : amino acids

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14
Q

What are lipids

A

• made of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen
• large polymers that break down into 3 fatty acid molecules and a glycerol molecule

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15
Q

Test for glucose

A
  1. Add sample solution into test tube
  2. Add drops of Benedicts solution into test tube
  3. heat in water bath at 60-70°C for 5 mins
  4. take test tube out and record colour
    POSITIVE = Brick red
    NEGATIVE = remains blue
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16
Q

Test for starch

A
  1. Use pipette and add sample solution onto tile
  2. Add drops of iodine solution and
  3. Leave for 1 minute and record colour change
    POSITIVE = Blue-black
    NEGATIVE = remains brown
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17
Q

Test for protein

A
  1. Add sample solution into test tube
  2. Add drops of Buirets solution into test tube 3. Leave for 1 minute and record colour change
    POSITIVE = purple
    NEGATIVE = remains blue
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18
Q

Test for fats

A
  1. Add 2cm³ of ethanol to test solution
  2. Add 2cm³ of distilled water
  3. Leave for 3 minutes and record colour change
    POSITIVE = milky white emulsion formed
    NGATIVE = remains colourless
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18
Q

Role of enzymes

A

Biological catalysts
Enzymes are proteins that help speed up chemical reactions in our bodies.

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18
Q

Effect of temperature on enzymes activity

A

•optimum is 37°C
•rate of reaction increases with increase in temperature until optimum
•above optimum, rate of reaction rapidly decreases and eventually reaction stops
• when temperature becomes too hot the bonds break
• This changes shape of active site, so substrate can’t fit
• enzymes is denatured and can’t work anymore

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19
Q

Practical : investigate how enzyme activity can be affected by changes in temperature

A
  1. Starch solution is heated to set temperature
  2. Amylase is added
  3. Iodine is added to each tile after a minute
  4. measure time taken until iodine stops going blue-black
  5. repeat with different temperatures
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20
Q

Effect of pH on enzymes activity

A

• optimum pH is 7 (most of the time)
• if pH is too high or low, forces that hold amino acid chains will be affected
• This changes the shape of the active site, so substrate doesn’t fit
• enzyme is denatured

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21
Q

Describe diffusion

A

• The net movement of particles from high to low concentration
• Passive process (no energy required)

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22
Q

Describe osmosis

A

• The movement of water from a less to higher concentration through partially permeable membrane
• high water potential to low water potential = down concentration gradient
• Passive process

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23
Q

Describe active transport

A

• The movement of particles from low to high concentration against the concentration gradient
• requires energy

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24
Q

Factors that affect the rate of movement

A

•Concentration gradient
• temperature
• surface area:volume ratio
• distance

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25
Q

Practical : investigating osmosis in potatoes

A
  1. place different sucrose solutions (including 0% for a control) in different boiling tube’s
  2. Dry potato strip on a paper towel and measure masses
  3. Place each strip into each sucrose solution for 20 mins
  4. record how each mass has changed
  5. repeat tests at each solution several times w same potato strip mass
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26
Q

The process of photosynthesis

A

• The process of making glucose from sunlight in the leaves of plants
• Endothermic reaction
• light converted to chemical energy within chloroplasts

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27
Q

equation for photosynthesis

A

. light
carbon dioxide + —> glucose + water oxygen

CO² + H2O         --->    C⁶H¹²O⁶ + O²
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28
Q

Factors affecting photosynthesis

A

• Temperature
• Light intensity
• Carbon dioxide concentration

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29
Q

Structure of a leaf

A

waxy cuticle
upper epidermis
palisade mesophyll
spongy mesophyll
lower epidermis
guard cell
stomata

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30
Q

Describe waxy cuticle

A

•helps reduce water loss by evaporation
•protective layer found at top of leaf

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31
Q

Describe upper epidermis

A

very thin and transparent to let light in to the palisade mesophyll

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32
Q

Describe palisade mesophyll

A

•contains lots of chloroplast so that photosynthesis can happen rapidly

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33
Q

Describe spongy mesophyll

A

• has lots of air spaces to allow gases to diffuse in and our of cell faster
• as it increases the surface area to volume ratio

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34
Q

Describe Lower epidermis

A

• contains guard cells and stomata

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35
Q

Describe guard cell

A

• kidney shaped cells
• open and close the stomata by absorbing or losing water
• when lots of water is available, the cell fills and open stomata

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36
Q

Describe stomata

A

• where gas exchange and loss of water by evapotion takes place
• opens during day, closes at night

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37
Q

What are the mineral ions and what are they needed for

A

Magnesium :
• required for chlorophyll production
• deficiency –> leaves to turn yellow

Nitrate :
• required to produce amino acids
• deficiency –> stunted growth and yellow leaves

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38
Q

What should a balanced diet include

A

carbohydrates
proteins
lipids
Fibre
vitamins
minerals
water

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39
Q

Source and function of carbohydrates

A

Source : bread, cereal, potatoes, rice

Function : high energy source

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40
Q

Source and function of proteins

A

Source : meat, fish, eggs

Function : for growth and repair

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41
Q

Source and function of lipids

A

Source: butter, oil, nutes

Function : high energy source and for insulation

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42
Q

Source and function of fibre

A

Source : vegetables, bran

Function : to provide roughage to keep food moving through gut. defiency –> constipation

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43
Q

Source and function of vitamin A

A

Source : carrots, green vegetables

Function : needed for vision ( especially in dark), and growth

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44
Q

Source and function of vitamin C

A

Source:citrus fruits, broccoli, peppers

Function : helps to absorb iron

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45
Q

Source and function of vitamin D

A

Source : margarine, oily fish

Function : helps to absorb calcium

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46
Q

Source and function of Calcium

A

Source : milk

Function: for bone and teeth strength, deficiency –> rickets

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47
Q

Source and function of iron

A

Source : red meat

Function : needed for hemoglobin, deficiency –> anaemia

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48
Q

Source and function of water

A

Source : water, juice, milk

Function : needed for cell reactions to take place

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49
Q

Factors affecting energy requirements

A

age
activity levels
pregnancy

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50
Q

Human alimentary canal

A

the passage food moves through once it has been eaten

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51
Q

function of mouth

A

• mechanical digestion
• chemical digestion
• Salivary glands produce saliva to lubricate food do it can be swallowed easily

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52
Q

function of oesophagus

A

• tube from mouth to stomach
• food moves down due to peristalsis (undirectional wave like contractions) created by muscles that create a sweeping like action

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53
Q

function of pancreas

A

• produces carbohydrase, protease, and lipase enzymes
• secrets enzymes unto stomachache and small intestine

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54
Q

function of stomach

A

• gastric juice released from stomach lining when it detects food in stomach
• peristalsis also occurs here

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55
Q

function of small intestine

A

Duodenum:
• first part
• carbohyrases, proteases, and lipases digest food here
•bile is released
• peristalsis aldo occurs here

Ileum :
• lined with vili to maximize absorption of digested soluble molecules into blood

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56
Q

Bile

A

• produced by liver
• stored in gallbladder
• it is alkaline, neutralizes hydrochloric acid from stomach
• breaks down large drops of fat into smaller ones ( emulsifies it)

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57
Q

function of large intestine

A

• water is absorbed here to produce faeces
• faeces stored in rectum and removed through anus

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58
Q

function of rectum

A

stores faeces before egestion

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59
Q

how does peristalsis work to push food though the gut

A

muscles contract in a wave like fashion which pushes food along

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60
Q

what enzymes break starch down to glucose

A

maltose and amylase

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61
Q

what group of enzymes break proteins down into amino acids

A

proteases

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62
Q

what group of enzymes break lipids down into glycerin and fatty acids

A

lipases

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63
Q

what does bile do

A

•bile neutralizes the stomach acid, provides alkaline conditions for digestive enzymes in small intestine
• bile emulsifies fat

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64
Q

where is bile produced

A

in the liver

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65
Q

where is bile stored

A

in the gallbladder

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66
Q

How is the small intestine adapted for absorption

A

• large surface area
• thin walls - easy transfer of nutrients
• rich blood supply - capillaries carry away absorbed nutrients

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67
Q

purpose of respiration

A

to produce energy in the form of ATP from larger molecules (like sugars)

68
Q

What type of reaction is respiration

A

exothermic reaction

69
Q

When does aerobic respiration take place

A

when there is plenty of oxygen available

70
Q

what is symbol equation for aerobic respiration

A

C⁶H¹²O⁶ + 6O² —> 6CO² + 6H²O + energy

71
Q

word equation for aerobic respiration

A

glucose + oxygen —> carbon dioxide + water

72
Q

When does anaerobic respiration take place

A

when there’s no oxygen available

73
Q

equation for anaerobic respiration in animals

A

Glucose —> lactic acid + energy

74
Q

which type of respiration produces more ATP

A

aerobic respiration produces more ATP

75
Q

word equation for anaerobic respiration in plants

A

glucose —> ethanol + carbon dioxide

76
Q

describe general structure of lungs

A

• trachea branches into two bronchi
• bronchi branch into bronchioles
• bronchioles terminate in alveoli

77
Q

describe structure of ribs

A

• bone ‘cage’ surrounding the lungs
• provides protection of internal organs

78
Q

describe intercostal muscle

A

• muscles found between ribs
• controls inhalation and exhalation

79
Q

describe diaphragm

A

• muscular dome at bottom of thorax
• changes the pressure to control inhalation and exhalation

80
Q

describe trachea

A

• the windpipe
• where air enters thorax and flows to lungs

81
Q

describe bronchi

A

• trachea divides into 2 bronchi, one to each lunch

82
Q

describe bronchioles

A

the bronchi further divide into smaller tube’s that connect to alveoli

83
Q

describe alveoli

A

tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs

84
Q

describe pleural membranes

A

• found on outside of lungs and inside of chest cavity
• lubricates the lungs
• reduces friction when breathing

85
Q

What happens to intercostal muscles and diaphragm in inhalation and exhalation

A

INHALATION
intercostal muscles : contract
diaphragm : contracts downwards

EXHALATION
intercostal muscles : relax
diaphragm : relaxes upwards

86
Q

alveoli adaptations

A

thin cell walls - one cell thick so shorter distance of diffusion

folded - to increase surface area for diffusion

large network of tiny capillaries - increases concentration gradient, oxygen can diffuse into blood and CO² can be breathed out

87
Q

3 health issues caused by smoking

A

• cancer
• bronchitis
• coronary heart disease

88
Q

how does smokers cough begin

A

• cilia on cells lining trachea waft mucus containing dirt out of lungs
• smoking can kill cells lining trachea
• Build-up of mucus in lungs can cause people to develop smokers cough

89
Q

2 reasons why unicellular organisms can rely on diffusion only

A

• have large surface area to volume ratio due to their size
• have low metabolic demands

90
Q

What does the phloem transport

A

sugars like sucrose

91
Q

what direction does the phloem transport sugars

A

• transports sugars up and down plant
• from source to sink

92
Q

what does xylem transport

A

water and minerals

93
Q

what direction does the xylem transport water and minerals

A

• up the plants
• from the roots to the leaves

94
Q

How is the xylem adapted to transport water

A

• waterproofed by using a substance called lignin
• xylem cells are dead and have no organelles so more space for water

95
Q

Describe translocation

A

• the movement of sugars up or down the phloem from source to sink
• using energy

96
Q

4 components of blood

A

• red blood cells
• white blood cells
• platelets
• plasma

97
Q

describe platelets

A

• small fragments of cells
• involved in blood clotting

98
Q

how are red blood cells adapted yo their function

A

• contains haemoglobin to carry oxygen
• bioncaoe shape to maximize surface area and allow them to squeeze through capillaries
• no nucleus to maximize space for haemoglobin

99
Q

describe and purpose of plasma

A

• liquid part of blood
• acts as transport medium foe CO², hormones, nutrients and waste products

100
Q

function of white blood cells

A

• involved in phagocytosis
• some white blood cells produce antibodies

101
Q

what is a pathogen

A

a disease causing organism

102
Q

2 ways body can respond to detecting a pathogen

A

• lymphocytes produce antibodies that are specific to antigens on pathogens
• phagocytes can engulf the pathogen

103
Q

describe the double circulatory system in mammals

A

• heart pumps blood to lungs
• oxygenated blood returns to the heart and pumped around body

104
Q

difference in function between arteries, veins and capillaries

A

• arteries - carry blood away from heart
• veins - carry blood towards heart
• capillaries- flow close to tissues for exchange

105
Q

describe structure of arteries

A

have thick walls made of muscle and elastic tissue and a small lumen to transport blood under high pressure

106
Q

describe structure of veins

A

• have less muscle and elastic tissue than arteries
• have a larger lumen as blood is at lower pressure
• have valves to prevent backflow

107
Q

describe structure of capillaries

A

have thin walls about 1 cell thick to allow easy exchange of substances at the tissues

108
Q

describe blood flow through the right side of heart

A

• deoxygenated blood flows into right atrium from vena cava
• this blood passes through right AV valve into right ventricle
• blood then pumped out of heart to the lungs though right SL valve and unto pulmonary artery

109
Q

describe blood flow through left side of the heart

A

• blood enters into left atrium from pulmonary vein
• the blood is then pumped through left AV valve into left ventricle
• blood then pumped out through left SL valve and into aorta

110
Q

name of the wall that separates right and left sides of heart

A

the septum

111
Q

name of the artery taht supplies the heart tissue with blood

A

the coronary artery

112
Q

what type of muscle is the heart made of

A

cardiac muscle

113
Q

why is the wall of left ventricle thicker than wall of right ventricle

A

• left ventricle has to pump blood further distance around whole body
• blood needs to be under a higher pressure

114
Q

what does adrenaline do to heart rate

A

• increases heart rate
• as it triggers ‘flight or fight’ reflex

115
Q

3 parts of the body that adrenaline affects

A

• increases heart rate
• dialates pupils
• increases breathing rate

116
Q

why does heart rate increase during exercise

A

• more muscle movement needs more energy from respiration
• muscle tissues need to have a supply of oxygen to carry out respiration
• so the heart needs to pump faster to provide oxygen

117
Q

what is coronary heart disease

A

when artery providing heart tissue with blood becomes blocked

118
Q

3 common risk factors for CHD

A

• smoking
• poor diet
• lack of exercise

119
Q

what 2 waste gases do plants produce and what processes produce them

A

Oxygen - waste product of photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide - waste product of respiration

120
Q

function of kidneys

A

• regulate volume and concentration of urine
• remove water and regulate body water content

121
Q

give 3 waste products produced in the body

A

• urea
• carbon dioxide
• excess salt and water

122
Q

name 3 excretory organs

A

• lungs
• kidneys
• skin

123
Q

Define homeostasis

A

maintaining a constant interal environment despite external change

124
Q

3 conditions that need to be controlled within the body

A

• temperature
• water levels
• blood glucose concentration

125
Q

3 main parts to a coordinated response

A

• a stimulus
• a receptor
• an effector

126
Q

What does auxin trigger

A

• auxin triggers growth of the main stem of the plant
• (and it inhibits growth of side shoots)

127
Q

What is phototropism + which part of a plant is positively phototropic

A

• phototropism - growth of a plant towards a light source
• the shoots are positively phototropic

128
Q

What is geotropism + which part of a plant is positively geotropic

A

• geotropism - growth of a plant towards pull of gravity
• roots are positively geotropic

129
Q

How does auxin cause the shoots to grow towards light source

A

• auxin collects on shaded side
• auxin promotes cell growth
• the shoot curves towards light

130
Q

3 differences between nervous and hormonal communication

A

• N - uses nerve cells and impulses
H - secreted by glands and travel in blood

• Nervous is generally much faster

• Hormonal brings longer lasting responses

131
Q

What is the difference between central nervous system + peripheral nervous system

A

CNS - brain and spinal cord
PNS - every other part of the nervous system

132
Q

How is an impulse transmitted between 2 neurones

A

• The impulse reaches the end of 1 neurone
• neurotransmitter released and diffuse across the gap
• a new impulse is triggered in the next neurone

133
Q

What is a stimulus

A

a change in the environment

134
Q

What type of neurone connects a receptor to the CNS

A

a sensory neurone

135
Q

What is an effector

A

• a part of the body that brings the response to a stimulus
• like a muscle or a gland

136
Q

what type of neurone connects the CNS to an effector

A

a motor neurone

137
Q

describe the reflex arc

A

• stimulus detected by receptor
• impulse passed along sensory neurone to CNS
• impulse passed along motor neurone to effector
• effector brings about the response

138
Q

describe sequence of events involved in removing a hand away from a hot flame

A

• thermoreceptors in hand detect heat of flame
• an impulse sent along sensory neurone
• the impulse passes through relay neutones in the CNS
• the impulse then passes along a motor neurone and triggers muscles in the arm to move the hand away

139
Q

what is cornea and it’s function

A

• transparent layer infeont of eye
• protects the eye from damage

140
Q

what is the iris and it’s function

A

• The coloured ring around the pupil
• controls it’s diameter

141
Q

What is the pupil and it’s function

A

• The hole in the middle of the iris
• let’s light into the eye

142
Q

What is the optic nerve and it’s function

A

• The nerve coming out the back of the eye
• sends signals to the brain

143
Q

function of the lens

A

focuses the light rays onto the retina

144
Q

What is the retina and it’s function

A

• The back part of the eye
• converts visual stimulus into electrical impulses

145
Q

What do the ciliary body and suspensory ligaments do

A

they control the shape of the lens

146
Q

How does the eye focus of near objects

A

• ciliary muscles contract and suspensory ligaments relax, causing lens to thicken
• thicker lens causes light to refract more

147
Q

how does the eye focus on far away objects

A

• ciliary muscles relax and suspensory ligaments stretch, which makes lens thinner
• thinner lens causes light to refract less

148
Q

how does the eye respond to bright light

A

it’s contracts, making pupil smaller and letting in less light

149
Q

how does the eye respond to a lack of light

A

iris relaxes which makes pupil larger and let’s in more light

150
Q

coordination and response : why foes temperature need to be controlled

A

• to provide a suitable environment for enzymes
• so they can work fastes at optimum temperature

151
Q

2 processes involving skin that cool the body down

A

sweating - cools body by evaporation
vasodilation - allows blood to flow closer to the surface of the skin where it can be cool

152
Q

describe process of vasodilation

A

• body detects a rise in temperature
• blood vessels supplying the capillaries at the skin surface dilate (muscles I’m the vessels relax)
• more blood flows closer to the skin where it can cool

153
Q

3 processes that work to keep body warm

A

• vasoconstriction
• shivering
• erection of hairs on skin

154
Q

describe process of vasoconstriction

A

• body detects a top in temperature
• blood vessels supplying the capillaries at the skin surface constrict (muscles in the vessels constrict)
• less blood flows closet to the skin surface so less heat is lost to surroundings

155
Q

what are hormones

A

• chemical messengers
• secreted by glands of the endocrine system into the bloodstream

156
Q

what does insulin do in the body

A

decreases blood glucose concentration

157
Q

where is insulin secreted from

A

the B cells of the pancreas

158
Q

what does testosterone do

A

• main male sex hormone
• involved in growth of testes and penis
• triggers many changes in males during puberty

159
Q

where is testosterone secreted from

A

the testes

160
Q

when in adrenaline secreted

A

during times of anxiety, fear or stress

161
Q

where is adrenaline released from

A

the adrenal glands

162
Q

give 3 affects of adrenaline in the body

A

• increases heart and breathing rate
• increases blood glucose concentration
• dialates pupils

163
Q

what does oestrogen do

A

causes the uterus lining to thicken

164
Q

where is oestrogen secreted from

A

the ovaries

165
Q

what hormone does oestrogen inhibit

A

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

166
Q

what does progesterone do

A

maintains the womb lining

167
Q

where is progesterone secreted from

A

the ovaries

168
Q

what hormone does progesterone inhibit

A

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

Biology (5 decks)

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