Stress Flashcards
Complete
1
Q
What is the definition of stress?
A
A mismatch between the perceived demands of the environment and the body’s ability to cope with this demand
2
Q
What are the two physiological responses to stress?
A
The sympathomedullary pathway (SAM)
The hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal system (HPA) - also referred to as the pituitary-adrenal system
3
Q
What is the short-term response to stress called?
A
The sympathomedullary pathway (SAM)
4
Q
What is the long-term response to stress called?
A
The hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal system (HPA)
5
Q
What happens in the SAM pathway?
A
Hypothalamus activates sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system.
Adrenaline and noradrenaline are released by the adrenal medulla (part of the adrenal gland).
Immediate fight or flight response - increased heart rate, breathing rate, digestion slowed, pupils dilated
6
Q
What happens to the SAM pathway after the stressor disappears?
A
Parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system activated, fight or flight response reduced, body returns to resting state
7
Q
What happens in the HPA pathway?
A
Hypothalamus secretes CRF (a releasing hormone).
CRF causes the pituitary gland to release ACTH (a stimulating hormone).
ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex (part of the adrenal gland) to release stress-related hormones e.g. cortisol
8
Q
When is the HPA pathway triggered in relation to the SAM pathway?
A
At the same time - it just lasts longer (if the stressor persists)
9
Q
What are the 3 main functions of cortisol?
A
Reduces immune system functioning (immunosuppression)
Maintains steady supply of glucose in the bloodstream
Reduces sensitivity to pain
10
Q
Why does cortisol reduce immune system functioning (immunosuppression)?
A
Everything is geared to dealing with the stressor/threat, protecting against infection and tissue repair are second priority in comparison to the emergency
11
Q
Why does cortisol maintain a steady supply of glucose in the bloodstream?
A
Ensures sufficient energy for the body to cope with the stressor
12
Q
Why does cortisol reduce sensitivity to pain?
A
Not distracted/in pain whilst they deal with the stressor (particularly beneficial when fighting/fleeing a predator)
13
Q
How are the short-term and long-term responses to stress reductionist?
A
Lazarus claimed the response is influenced by an individual’s perception of the stressor
2 groups of participants, 1 told gruesome initiation rites were exciting, other group told they were painful, second group showed more arousal of the ANS
Purely physiological accounts are not sufficient
14
Q
How are the short-term and long-term responses to stress gender biased/androcentric?
A
Fails to consider gender differences
Taylor et al suggested tend and befriend response in females due to more oxytocin
Inappropriate to propose males and females respond in the same way
(extra: this led to more research into female response)
15
Q
Who identified the general adaption syndrome (GAS)?
A
Selye (used rats)
16
Q
Why is the ‘G’ in GAS ‘general’?
A
It is the same response to all stressors
17
Q
Why is the ‘A’ in GAS ‘adaption’?
A
It is adaptive behaviour (best way to cope/survive)
18
Q
Why is the ‘S’ in GAS ‘syndrome’?
A
There are several symptoms
19
Q
What are the 3 stages of the general adaption syndrome?
A
Alarm -> Resistance -> Exhaustion
20
Q
What happens in the alarm stage of GAS?
A
The threat/stressor is detected, body reacts using HPA and SAM, fight or flight response
21
Q
What happens in the resistance stage of GAS?
A
If the stressor persists, adrenal medulla activity decreases (SAM), adrenal cortex activity increases (HPA).
On the surface body seems to be normal, but physiologically it is deteriorating: immune system less effective and resources depleted (hormones, neurotransmitters, etc)
22
Q
What happens in the exhaustion stage of GAS?
A
The body can no longer cope, the defence systems are exhausted, initial symptoms of SAM return (heart rate, sweating, etc), adrenal glands overworked and damaged.
Likely to suffer diseases of adaption (common cold, CHD, high blood pressure, etc)
23
Q
What is the supporting evidence for GAS?
A
Selye exposed rats to harmful stimuli, similar responses
He also found similar results from observations of humans
GAS is universal
24
Q
What are 2 weaknesses of GAS?
A
Doesn’t consider individual differences, some have cognitive coping strategies, not generalisable.
The illnesses in the exhaustion stage may not be from depletion of resources - research has shown no depletion of resources after extreme stress, now it is believed to be from high stress hormone levels
25
What are the practical applications from GAS?
Could lead to development of stress reduction programmes to improve health, benefits economy since less time off work
26
What are cardiovascular disorders?
Disorders of the heart and circulatory system e.g. high blood pressure, strokes
27
What effects does adrenaline have on the heart and circulatory system?
Increased heart rate - takes a toll over time.
High blood pressure due to constriction of blood vessels, causes wear and tear.
High blood pressure - dislodge plaque off the walls, lead to blocked arteries, leads to heart attacks/strokes
28
What was Wilbert-Lampen et al's aim?
To investigate whether stress is linked to cardiovascular disorders
29
Who conducted a study into stress and cardiovascular disorders?
Wilbert-Lampen et al
30
What was Wilbert-Lampen et al's procedure?
Looked at frequency of heart attacks in Germany during matches Germany played in the 1996 World Cup (deemed an acute stressor)
31
What were Wilbert-Lampen et al's findings?
Cardiac emergencies increased by 2.66 times
32
What were Wilbert-Lampen et al's conclusions?
Arousal of the sympathetic branch of the ANS is linked to cardiovascular disorders
33
What is immunosuppression?
The reduction of the body's immune system response
34
Who conducted a study into stress and immunosuppression?
Kiecolt-Glaser et al
35
What was Kiecolt-Glaser et al's aim?
To investigate whether the stress of an important exam had an impact on immune system functioning
36
What was Kiecolt-Glaser et al's procedure?
Natural experiment
Take blood samples 1 month before the exams (low stress condition) and the day of the exam (high stress condition)
Looked at natural killer (NK) cell activity (part of immune system response)
Questionnaire of life events and loneliness scale
37
What were Kiecolt-Glaser et al's findings?
Immune system functioning reduced
NK cell activity was significantly reduced in high stress condition
Immune systems were especially weak for those experiencing life events and were lonely
38
What were Kiecolt-Glaser et al's conclusions?
Short-term, predictable stressors reduce immune system functioning, also affected by psychological variables so long-term stressors have more reduction of immune system functioning than short-term
39
What was Kiecolt-Glaser et al's sample?
75 first-year medical students (49 males, 26 females)
40
What is the challenging research of Kiecolt-Glaser et al's research?
Segerstrom and Miller's meta-analysis of 300 studies. Different stressors have different effects:
Acute (short-term) stressors (e.g. presenting to an audience) increase NK cells, increasing immune system functioning.
Everyday stressors (e.g. an exam) have no impact.
Chronic (long-term) stressors (e.g. caring for a permanently ill family member) decreased immune system functioning.
41
What are the 2 weaknesses of research into the role of stress in illness?
Research is correlational so no cause and effect, health is slow to change, uncertain which stressor has an impact - we would need to monitor many individuals over a long time - impractical and expensive - so we can't draw confident conclusions.
Doesn't consider individual differences e.g.
1) Women show more adverse changes in their immune system after marital conflict.
2) Stress has a greater impact on immune systems as people get older.
3) Some people respond to stress with higher blood pressure/heart rate, so more cardiovascular disorders.
These factors not considered in the complex human response to stress
42
What is workload?
The amount of effort and/or activity involved in a job (also known as job demand)
43
What is job control?
The extent to which a person feels they can manage aspects of their work such as deadlines and work environment
44
What is workplace stress?
Aspects of our working environment that we experience as stressful (cause a stress response)
45
What is the job-strain model?
A model that suggest the workplace creates stress in 2 ways: high workload and low job control
46
What was the aim of Marmot et al's study?
To investigate the effects of workload and control in the workplace on illness (CHD - Coronary Heart Disease)
47
What was the procedure of Marmot et al's study?
10,000 male and female civil service employees.
Questionnaire related to their role assessing job control, workload, and social support. Also tested for signs of CHD (then reassessed for CHD 5 years later)
48
What were the findings of Marmot et al's study?
No correlation between workload and CHD.
Negative correlation between job control and CHD
49
What were the conclusions of Marmot et al's study?
Illness (CHD) is associated with low job control but not high workload
50
What was the aim of Johannson et al's study?
To investigate the effects of workload and control in the workplace
51
What was the procedure of Johannson et al's study?
Natural experiment, matched pairs.
Group 1 had high workload and low control, Group 2 had low workload and high control.
Recorded daily levels of adrenaline on work days and weekends, self-reports of job satisfaction and illness
52
What were the findings of Johannson et al's study?
Group 1 had higher levels of adrenaline, especially on work days, higher levels of absenteeism, reported more illness, felt a greater sense of social isolation
53
What were the conclusions of Johannson et al's study?
Low job control and high workload are associated with stress and stress-related illnesses
54
What are 4 weaknesses of research into workplace stress as a source of stress?
Focuses on just a few potential causes of workplace stress - there are others e.g. pay, conditions, job security - confounding variables.
Questionnaires are subject to social desirability effects, also may overlook stressors - interviews may be a more valid method.
Lacks temporal validity - working environment everchanging: new technology, virtual offices, working from home.
Doesn’t account for individual differences. Some people are less stressed by low control, also under load causes stress so it’s an oversimplified view
55
What are life changes?
Events that require a considerable amount of readjustment for an individual e.g. marriage, divorce, moving house, bereavement.
Happen from time to time, not everyday
56
Who suggested life changes could lead to illness and how?
Holmes and Rahe - stress can lead to illness, and life changes are all stressful, good and bad
57
What was the aim of Rahe et al's study?
To investigate whether there was a positive correlation between the number of life changes experienced and illness reported in a non-clinical population
58
What was the procedure of Rahe et al's study?
Prospective study of 2664 navy personnel asked to complete adapted SRRS (SRE) for events 6 months prior to their tour of duty - this gives the LCU score.
Recorded anytime they visited the sick bay on board for 6-8 months as well as type and severity - this gives the illness score
59
What were the findings of Rahe et al's study?
Positive correlation of 0.118 between LCU score and illness score.
Most evident in married men compared to young single sailors
60
What is the challenging evidence for the idea that life changes are an important source of stress?
Lazarus argued daily hassles have a stronger accumulative effect.
Another study found a positive correlation of 0.59 between daily hassles and next-day health problems, but no such correlation for life changes
61
What are the practical applications from the idea that life changes are an important source of stress?
Health professionals can better advise people - Advice Leaflets Therapy - benefits economy as less sick days
62
What are daily hassles?
Irritating, frustrating, distressing demands that humans face on a day-to-day basis
63
How do daily hassles cause stress?
An accumulation of minor daily stressors creates persistent irritation, frustration and overload which then results in more serious stress reactions such as depression and anxiety
64
What was the aim of Bouteyre et al's study?
To investigate the relationship between daily hassles and depression in students during the transition period between school and university
65
What was the procedure of Bouteyre et al's study?
233 French first-year psychology students completed the hassles part of the HSUP and the Beck Depression Inventory. Also 2 other self-report measures based on coping with stressful situations and social support.
89% female, 11% male, average 20 years old
66
What were the findings of Bouteyre et al's study?
41% showed depressive symptoms.
Positive correlation of 0.33 between HSUP scores and the likelihood of depressive symptoms.
Identified 5 key hassles: fear of the future, medical care, transport, lack of free time, physical appearance
67
What is the supporting evidence for the idea that daily hassles are an important source of stress?
Kanner et al's longitudinal study found daily hassles were a more accurate predictor of stress related problems than life changes
68
What is a weakness for the idea that daily hassles are an important source of stress?
Correlational - no cause and effect, may be intervening variables (e.g. being depressed) which makes them more likely to report daily hassles and illness
69
Who designed the SRRS and what does it stand for?
Social Readjustment Ratings Scale, designed by Holmes and Rahe
70
How many life changes are on the SRRS?
43
71
What does a high LCU mean?
More adjustment is needed for that life change
72
How was the SRRS developed?
Holmes and Rahe examined 5000 patient medical records and identified the 43 life changes.
394 'judges' decided the LCU for each life change against marriage which was given a baseline of 50.
An average of these were taken
73
How does a participant use the SRRS?
Asked to tick which life events they have experienced within a specific time period.
Researcher then adds up the LCU for the ticked life changes (participant doesn't see LCU values for each life change)
74
What does LCU stand for?
Life Change Unit(s)
75
A score of less than 150 LCUs means what?
You are likely to be reasonably healthy in the following year
76
A score of 150-300 LCUs means what?
You have a 50% chance of experiencing illness in the following year
77
A score of more than 300 LCUs means what?
You have an 80% chance of experiencing illness in the following year
78
What does HSUP stand for and who designed it?
Hassles and Uplifts Scale, designed by Kanner et al
79
Why was the HSUP designed?
To find a correlation between daily hassles and stress-related illnesses.
And to see if daily uplifts offset the negative effects of daily hassles
80
What are daily uplifts?
Small, pleasant, enjoyable things that give people a boost and make them feel better
81
How was the HSUP developed?
Kanner et al asked research staff to generate a list of hassles and uplifts, this led to 117 hassles and 135 uplifts
82
How many hassles and uplifts are there on the HSUP?
117 hassles and 135 uplifts
83
How do participants use the HSUP?
Rate each hassle in terms of severity on a scale of 1-3 (somewhat severe, moderately, extremely)
Rate each uplift in terms of frequency on a scale of 1-3 (somewhat often, moderately, extremely)
84
What is a strength of both the HSUP and SRRS?
They can be used extensively and flexibly and can be modified to fit the purposes of the study e.g. Rahe modified the SRRS to be navy-specific
85
What is a weakness of both the HSUP and SRRS?
Only show correlation, not causation, e.g. feeling ill might make hassles seem worse and uplifts less frequent, rather than the other way round
86
What is a weakness of the SRRS specifically?
Individual differences are not considered, e.g. a work-motivated person will feel more stress about changing employment
87
What are 2 weaknesses of the HSUP specifically?
Time-consuming (252 items), which could lead to the participant losing focus part way through.
Open to interpretation (somewhat vs moderately vs severe)
88
What are physiological measures of stress?
Skin Conductance Response (SCR), Blood pressure, cortisol levels
89
How does the skin conductance response work?
When we're stressed, we sweat.
Human skin is a good conductor of electricity, more so when wet.
0.5 volts are sent through the body through electrodes, the current is then measured (in micro Siemens)
90
What is a strength of the skin conductance response?
Not influenced by social desirability bias.
Can be used on participants who can't use self-report methods - children, animals
91
What is a weakness of the skin conductance response?
Stress is not the only stimulus to produce an increase in sweat: fear, anger, temperature, cognitive appraisal (these are confounding variables)
92
How many personality types are there?
3
93
Who came up with the personality types?
Friedman and Rosenman
94
What are the 3 characteristics that are used to determine personality type?
Hostility, competitiveness, being time pressured (urgency)
95
What are 3 behaviours of a hostile person?
Easily irritated and impatient with co-workers.
Easily angered.
Anger can be directed Inwards
96
What are 2 behaviours of a competitive person?
Playing to win; either at work or during leisure.
Always orientated towards achievement
97
What are 3 behaviours of an urgent person?
Always working to deadlines.
Unhappy doing nothing.
Multi-tasking; doing several jobs at once
98
Why are Type A personality people more likely to suffer from CHD?
The behaviours they exhibit increase blood pressure and levels of stress hormones
99
What does Type A personality look like?
Hostile, competitive, urgent
100
What does Type B personality look like?
Calm, relaxed, easy-going
101
What does Type C personality look like?
Suppress their emotions (especially negative ones).
Unassertive, cooperative, conformist, likeable, avoid conflict, seek harmony.
They use denial, repression and self-aggression
102
What stress-related illness is Type A personality prone to develop and why?
Cardiovascular disorders - due to adrenaline, increased heart rate and blood pressure, strains heart (SAM)
103
What stress-related illness is Type B personality prone to develop and why?
None
104
What stress-related illness is Type C personality prone to develop and why?
Cancer - due to cortisol, immunosuppression (HPA)
105
What was Friedman and Rosenman's aim?
To investigate whether there is a link between people with Type A behaviour and an increased risk of CHD
106
What was Friedman and Rosenman's procedure?
Longitudinal study of 3454 middle class Californian men aged 39-59 all free of any signs of CHD.
Structured interview to determine personality type (interviewer annoyed them and noted their reactions).
Followed up 8.5 years later checking for signs of CHD
107
What were Friedman and Rosenman's findings?
Type A: 13% had a heart attack, 3% had a fatal one.
Higher blood pressure and cholesterol levels.
More likely to smoke and have a family history of CHD.
Type B: 6% had a heart attack, 1% had a fatal one
108
What were Friedman and Rosenman's conclusions?
There is a link between Type A and stress-related illness (CHD)
109
What was Morris et al's aim?
To investigate whether there is a link between Type C behaviours and cancer
110
What was Morris et al's procedure?
Over 2 years, 71 women attending a cancer clinic in London.
Interviewed about how often they expressed affection, unhappiness by crying, or losing control when angry to assess typical patterns of emotional behaviour.
Interviewer unaware of initial diagnosis
111
What were Morris et al's findings?
Those who reported they experienced and expressed less anger (Type C) were more likely to have their breast lumps to be cancerous
112
What were Morris et al's conclusions?
There is a link between Type C and stress-related illness (cancer)
113
What is the challenging evidence for the link between Type A personality and CHD?
Ragland and Brand followed up on Friedman and Rosenman's study 22 years later.
Found little evidence for a link between Type A and mortality.
A meta-analysis found only 50% of studies have found the link
114
What is the challenging evidence for the link between Type C personality and cancer?
Giraldi et al found no link between suppressing emotions and cancer, but did find a link between stressful life events and cancer
115
What are 2 criticisms of the link between Type A personality and CHD?
Type A personality is too broad.
There is a link between hostility and CHD though, and this could lead to practical applications of therapies designed to reduce hostility.
It's correlational too - no cause and effect
116
Who invented hardiness and the 'three Cs'?
Kobasa
117
What are the three Cs?
Control, commitment, challenge
118
What does hardiness and the three Cs explain?
Why some people experience a lot of stress and don't become ill
119
How does control link to hardiness?
Hardy people believe they have control over events in their life, they actively strive to influence their environment
120
How does commitment link to hardness?
Hardy people see the world, people, and careers as things to engage with, they throw themselves wholeheartedly into life, and see their role as meaningful
121
How does challenge link to hardness?
Hardy people see life events and changes as challenges to overcome, they are resilient, and recognise life as unpredictable, but view this as exciting and stimulating
122
What was Kobasa et al's aim?
To investigate whether individuals with a hardy personality show fewer negative effects of stress
123
What was Kobasa et al's procedure?
800 American male middle and senior business managers.
Modified version of SRRS, asked to record events and illness over last 3 years.
150 were classified as high stress, of these, some had high illness scores, some had low
124
What were Kobasa et al's findings?
Individuals in the high stress/low illness group scored high on all three Cs
125
What were Kobasa et al's conclusions?
There is a link between stress-related illness and hardiness
126
What are 2 criticisms of research into hardiness?
Difficult to measure hardiness, awkwardly-worded self-report questionnaires mean people may not report what they actually do.
Overemphasized commitment and challenge, Cohen et al found control is the most important contributor
127
What are the practical applications of research into hardiness?
Individuals can be taught to become more hardy - and it's proven to be more effective than meditation, social support or placebos (which supports the theory)
Kobasa also identified other factors which help cope with stress (exercise, social support)
128
What is the aim of drug therapy?
To reduce the anxiety from stress (it is not a cure)
129
What are the 2 drugs we look at in stress?
Benzodiazepines and beta-blockers
130
What do benzodiazepines do?
Enhance the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA
131
What part of the body do benzodiazepines affect?
The central nervous system
132
What effect does GABA have and how does it do this?
Calming effect on neurons in the brain, by preventing neurons from passing on messages to various areas of the brain which could create anxiety
133
How does GABA work?
GABA binds to GABA-A receptors on the membrane of the post-synaptic neuron during synaptic transmission.
This opens a channel which increases the flow of negatively charged chloride ions which makes it more difficult to be excited by excitatory neurotransmitters
134
How do benzodiazepines enhance GABA?
They also bind to GABA receptors and allow more negatively charged ions to enter the post-synaptic neuron
135
What do beta-blockers have an effect on?
The heart and circulatory system
136
What do beta-blockers reduce the activity of?
Adrenaline and noradrenaline
(And in turn) the sympathetic nervous system
137
How do beta-blockers work?
They bind to beta-adrenergic receptors found on the heart and blood vessels and block them so they cannot be stimulated by adrenaline and noradrenaline so heart rate and blood pressure does not incease
138
What are 2 weaknesses of drug therapy?
Benzodiazepines have serious side effects like tiredness, agitation, impaired memory and motor coordination, addiction. So they aren’t accessible/appropriate for all.
They only treat the symptoms (e.g. heart rate) and do not target the source (e.g. life change - divorce) so once they stop taking the drug, the stress returns so it’s better to combine drug therapy and psychological methods
139
What are 2 strengths of drug therapy?
It is an easy method of stress management and requires little effort or time from the patient and it works quickly. So it’s suitable for many, which benefits economy.
Most people don’t get side effects from beta-blockers and they don’t reduce alertness meaning they are suitable for most people
140
What is the supporting evidence for the effectiveness of drug therapy?
Lockwood - investigated effectiveness of beta-blockers in ‘real world’. Over 2000 musicians in major US orchestra were studied. 27% reported taking beta-blockers and then said they felt better about their performance (and critics said they were better). Validates it, it’s useful in short-term.
Kahn et al - 250 patients over 8 weeks and found benzodiazepines more effective than the placebo (consistent with Baldwin et al’s meta-analysis tat said they are more effective than placebos too). Validates it, it’s useful in the short-term
141
What is stress inoculation therapy?
A psychological method of managing and coping with stress
142
What does stress inoculation therapy aim to do?
Target the underlying problems and by doing so, the physiological symptoms of stress will disappear
143
How does stress inoculation therapy work?
Training a person to cope with stressful situations by teaching them skills before a problem arises.
Change negative thinking to positive thinking
144
What are the 3 phases of stress inoculation therapy?
Conceptualisation.
Skills acquisition and rehearsal.
Application and follow-through
145
What happens in the conceptualisation phase of stress inoculation therapy?
Interviews discussing how the client thinks about and deals with stressful situations, and how successful these strategies have been.
Then taught about stress and how it affects the body and to perceive stressful situations as problems to be solved.
This helps them reconceptualise their problem.
The client retains responsibility for their progress since they are unique
146
What happens in the skills acquisition and rehearsal phase of stress inoculation therapy?
Teaches new coping skills which are tailored the the client.
The skills are cognitive (encourage a different way of thinking) and behavioural (involve learning more adaptive behaviours)
147
What are examples of skills that may be taught in stress inoculation therapy?
Thinking positively.
Exercise and relaxation techniques.
Using social support systems.
Developing social skills.
Using coping self-statements (e.g. I can develop a plan to deal with it, one step at a time, I can handle this, it worked, I did it)
148
What happens in the application and follow-through phase of stress inoculation therapy?
Given oppurtunities to apply the skills in the therapy room and then in real world.
Given homework to seek out stressful situations and apply the skills.
May use imagery, modding and role play
149
What was Sheehy and Horan's aim?
To investigate the effectiveness of stress inoculation therapy on stress levels and academic performance
150
What was Sheehy and Horan's procedure?
29 law students volunteered. 7 withdrew at the beginning.
Met with a counsellor for 90 minute sessions of SIT over 4 weeks
151
What were Sheehy and Horan's findings?
They showed lower levels of anxiety due to stress, and over half of them significantly improved their academic performance (measured by predicted class rank)
152
What were Sheehy and Horan's conclusions?
Stress inoculation therapy is an effective therapy at reducing anxiety due to stress
153
What are 2 strengths of stress inoculation therapy?
It's effective in managing stress e.g. academic stress, public speaking stress. Can be used for different types of stressors too.
Long-term benefits as the skills can be used for future stressors, and it helps with prevention so it's better than biological therapies of stress management
154
What is a weakness of stress inoculation therapy?
It takes time, motivation and commitment, which some people cannot give (e.g. working mothers).
Meichenbaum said that some disorders may need follow-up sessions for up to a year, so it isn't suitable for everyone
155
What is the rationale behind biofeedback?
If a person is aware of what is going on in their body, they can gain control over their body responses
156
What are all the methods of managing stress that we learn about?
Drug therapies: benzodiazepines and beta-blockers.
Stress Inoculation Therapy.
Biofeedback.
Social support
157
Is biofeedback a biological, cognitive or psychological method of managing stress?
Biological and psychological
158
How is biofeedback a biological method of managing stress?
It involves paying attention to physical information from your body about blood pressure and heat rate
159
How is biofeedback a psychological method of managing stress?
It is based on the behaviourist approach and involves operant conditioning
160
Are drug therapies a biological, cognitive or psychological method of managing stress?
Biological
161
Is stress inoculation therapy a biological, cognitive or psychological method of managing stress?
Cognitive
162
How is stress inoculation therapy a cognitive method of managing stress?
The skills taught are cognitive as they encourage a different way of thinking
163
How is are drug therapies a biological method of managing stress?
They impact the body
164
What are the 4 processes/stages of biofeedback?
Relaxation.
Feedback.
Operant conditioning.
Transfer
165
What happens in the relaxation stage of biofeedback?
Client is taught relaxation techniques, which reduce activity of the sympathetic nervous system and activate the parasympathetic nervous system.
Reduces heart rate, blood pressure, and other symptoms
166
What happens in the feedback stage of biofeedback?
Client is attached to machines which show activity of the autonomic nervous system (e.g. heart beat, blood pressure, muscle tension, breathing and sweat patterns).
When the feedback indicates a change that is undesirable, the client uses relaxation techniques
167
What happens in the operant conditioning stage of biofeedback?
The relaxation is rewarding on its own, but a light turning on or off, or a tone sounding, is more rewarding.
This increases the likelihood of the behaviour (using relaxation techniques) being repeated
168
What happens in the transfer stage of biofeedback?
Client learns to transfer the skills into real-life situations by practicing the techniques in everyday situations
169
What was Lemaire et al's aim?
To investigate whether biofeedback can reduce the negative effects of stress
170
What was Lemaire et al's procedure?
40 doctors volunteered. 28 days. Instructed to use a biofeedback-based stress management tool 3 times a day.
Both the control group and experimental group received twice-weekly visits from a research team.
Stress was measured with a scale adapted for doctors
171
What were Lemaire et al's findings?
The mean stress score declined significantly for those in the experimental condition, but not for those in the control/placebo condition
172
What were Lemaire et al's conclusions?
A biofeedback-based stress management tool may be a simple and effective stress-reduction strategy for physicians
173
What are 2 strengths of biofeedback?
Effective for a range of disorders like anxiety from PTSD, so it is a versatile and effective technique.
Better than other methods like drug therapy because it is not invasive and has a long-term impact and can be used for those who cannot cope with the mentally-demanding SIT
174
What is a weakness of biofeedback?
Some limitations compared to other therapies as it's time-consuming (longer than a month), requires effort and supervision (expensive equipment). Some have suggested it works simply from the relaxation, not operant conditioning
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What are the 2 gender differences?
Males use fight or flight whereas females use tend and befriend.
Males use problem-focused coping strategies whereas females use emotion-focused coping strategies
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Why is there a gender difference in the fight or flight/tend and befriend response?
Taylor et al - it is not adaptive for females to fight or flee because they need to protect offspring.
Oxytocin promotes bonding and is enhanced by oestrogen (which females have more of than males).
Testosterone is associated with aggression and inhibits oxytocin (and males have higher levels of testosterone than females)
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What does tend mean in tend and befriend?
Nurturing, protecting, and calming offspring, and blending in with the environment
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What does befriend mean in tend and befriend?
Seeking support from social networks
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Who suggested females use emotion-focused coping strategies and males use problem-focused coping strategies?
Lazarus and Folkman
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What are problem-focused coping strategies?
Tackles the cause of stress, often practically.
e.g. learn new skills like time management or financial planning
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What are emotion-focused coping strategies?
Tackles the feelings of stress (useful when the source of stress is out of their control).
e.g. avoidance tactics like keeping busy, thinking in a positive way, comfort eating, crying
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What was Peterson et al's aim?
To investigate whether men and women use different stress coping strategies in response to the stress of infertility
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What was Peterson et al's procedure?
1026 patients at a fertility clinic were asked to compete several questionnaires
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What were Peterson et al's findings?
Women used more emotion-focused coping strategies, were more likely to seek social support, and accept responsibility than men.
Men used more problem-focused coping strategies (e.g. distancing themselves from the problem and using problem-solving techniques). They also used some emotion-focused coping strategies
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What were Peterson et al's conclusions?
To some extent, women use emotion-focused coping strategies and men use problem-focused coping strategies, but gender difference in coping with stress are not clear cut
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What is the challenging evidence for gender differences in the fight and flight response to stress?
Females can be aggressive when an intruder threatens her offspring, showing they use a range of strategies to ensure she and her offspring survive
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What are 2 weaknesses of the gender differences in coping with stress?
May be based on unreliable self-report data. Men may be less likely to report emotion-focused coping strategies due to cultural expectations (social desirability effect). Also it's retrospective. The data is invalid.
There is an alternative explanation: coping strategies are situation-specific. Matud found males and females had the same number of stressors but females' stressors were often family-related (more suited to emotion-focused coping strategies) and males' stressors were work-related (more suitable for problem-focused coping strategies)
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What is social support?
The help a person receives from other people at times of stress
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What is the role of social support in coping with stress?
The more social support an individual has, the more able they are to cope with stressful situations.
How closely involved the individual feels in their social network is important
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What does a lack of social support lead to?
Prevents you from effectively dealing with stress.
Leads to a sense of isolation and depression
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What are the 3 types of social support?
Instrumental support, emotional support, esteem support.
These can overlap
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What is instrumental support?
Involves providing practical help.
It is a problem-focused approach and can be provided by anyone
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What are examples of instrumental support?
Lending money, cooking a meal, providing information, taking on responsibilities so they can deal with something else
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What is emotional support?
Involves expressing warmth, love, concern, and affection.
To lift someone's mood and make them feel better, often involves physical comfort, listening, and empathising.
It is an emotion-focused approach and is less likely to be offered by strangers
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What are examples of emotional support?
Hugs, pats on the back, listening, empathising
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What is esteem support?
Involves increasing a person's self-confidence.
To increase a person's sense of self-worth.
Most likely to be offered by friends and family, or therapists
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What are examples of esteem support?
Expressions of encouragement, reminding them of their strengths, letting them know you believe in them
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What is a similarity between the 3 types of social support?
They can be provided without being physically present
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What was Kamarck et al's aim?
To investigate whether social support helps in stressful situations
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What was Kamarck et al's procedure?
39 female psychology students volunteered.
Told to complete a difficult task while their physiological reactions were monitored.
Participants either were alone or with a same-sex friend
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What were Kamarck et al's findings?
Participants who were with a friend showed lower heart rate
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What were Kamarck et al's conclusions?
Social support can have a direct physiological effect when undertaking stressful tasks
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What is the supporting evidence for the role of social support in coping with stress? (other than Kamarck et al)
Fawzy et al found cancer patients who were part of an emotional support group had better NK cell functioning 6 years later, and were more likely to be alive and cancer-free.
Reliable, also provides practical applications
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What is the challenging evidence for the role of social support in coping with stress?
Kobasa et al found social support was the least important factor in reducing stress levels for business executives, hardiness was the most.
Another study found social support was not always beneficial for married couples
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What are 2 criticisms for the role of social support in coping with stress?
It refers to humans, when pets may be just as good as humans: talking to pets was more effective than talking to humans in one study. Allen found that the presence of pets reduced blood pressure in children reading aloud and helped elderly in life changes.
Culturally biased: Taylor et al found Asian-Americans less likely to seek social support. European-Americans viewed relationships as useful when coping with stressful situations. More research is needed before we generalise
