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Research Methods Beth Flashcards

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1
Q

Which body is responsible for ethical guidelines?

A

British Psychological Society

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2
Q

What is ethics a balance between?

A

Participants and research.

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3
Q

What are the ethical issues?

A

Consent, deception, confidentiality, debriefing, withdrawal, and protection.

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4
Q

What is informed consent?

A

Participants have sufficient information about the aims and procedures of the experiment so they can make an informed judgment.

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5
Q

What is deception?

A

Participants are misled about the true aims of the research

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6
Q

What is the right to withdraw?

A

Participants are allowed to withdraw from a study at any point.

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7
Q

What is confidentiality?

A

Participants’ data should not be personally identifiable.

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8
Q

What is protection from harm?

A

Participants must leave in the same mental and physical state that they arrived in.

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9
Q

What are the three ways of dealing with lack of consent?

A

Prior general consent, presumptive consent, or retrospective consent.

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10
Q

What is prior general consent?

A

Informing the participant that they will not be told everything about the aims and procedures of the research, or getting consent to be studied in general in advance.

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11
Q

What is presumptive consent?

A

Informing a group of individuals who are similar to the participants about the full aims and procedures and seeing if those individuals would give consent.

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12
Q

What is retrospective consent?

A

Getting informed consent after the research study.

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13
Q

How can deception be dealt with?

A

Debrief the participants afterwards.

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14
Q

How can the right to withdraw be dealt with?

A

Provide the right to withdraw by reminding the participant before, during, and afterwards that they can withdraw.

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15
Q

How can confidentiality be dealt with?

A

Avoid collecting personal details, use numbers or false names.

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16
Q

How can participants be protected from harm?

A

Terminate the research if they are in distress, provide the right to withdraw, debrief participants.

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17
Q

Why are ethics important in psychological investigations?

A

Maintain the balance, human rights, need a good reputation for volunteers.

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18
Q

What is sampling?

A

The technique used to get participants.

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19
Q

What is the sample?

A

The people that are studied taken from the target population.

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20
Q

What is the target population?

A

The group of individuals that a researcher wishes to study.

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21
Q

What are the five sampling methods?

A

Random, systematic, stratified, opportunity, and volunteer.

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22
Q

What is random sampling?

A

Where every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.

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23
Q

How can random sampling be used?

A

Putting everyone’s name in a hat, then drawing names without looking - or get someone else to pick the names

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24
Q

What are 2 strengths of random sampling?

A

No researcher bias, should be representative and so will be generalisable.

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25
Q

What are 3 weaknesses of random sampling?

A

Could be biased, impractical, time consuming.

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26
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

Taking every nth member of the target population to form the sample.

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27
Q

How do you find n for systematic (i think?) sampling?

A

target population size
———————————
sample size

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28
Q

What are strengths of systematic sampling?

A

No researcher bias, should be representative and so generalisable.

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29
Q

What are weaknesses of systematic sampling?

A

Could still be biased.

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30
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

Dividing the target population into categories important for the study and then using random sampling with accurate proportions.

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31
Q

What are 3 strengths of stratified sampling?

A

No bias, representative, generalisable.

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32
Q

What are weaknesses of stratified sampling?

A

Requires detailed knowledge about the target population, time consuming.

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33
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Using whoever is immediately available at the time.

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34
Q

What are strengths of opportunity sampling?

A

Quick and convenient.

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35
Q

What are weaknesses of opportunity sampling?

A

Biased, unrepresentative, not generalisable.

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36
Q

What should you never refer to volunteer sampling as?

A

Voluntary.

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37
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

Use whoever puts themselves forward.

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38
Q

What are strengths of volunteer sampling?

A

Easy, no researcher bias, reaches a large number of people, less risk of demand characteristics.

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39
Q

What are weaknesses of volunteer sampling?

A

Biased, so unrepresentative and not generalisable.
(a certain kind of person will volunteer/the kind of person who sees the ad)

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40
Q

What is an aim?

A

A general statement outlining what the researcher intends to investigate and the purpose of the investigation.

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41
Q

What is a variable?

A

Something that can change or gets changed
Something that is measured

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42
Q

What is a causal relationship in terms of IVs and DVs?

A

When the IV is the only thing impacting the DV.

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43
Q

Which variable(s) will only ever be in an experiment? (Never in anything else)

A

Independent and dependent variables.

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44
Q

What is an independent variable?

A

The variable being manipulated

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45
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A

The variable being influenced by the IV

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46
Q

What is an extraneous variable?

A

A variable that could influence the DV other than the IV

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47
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

An extraneous variable that is not controlled that moves in time with the IV (present in one condition but not in another)

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48
Q

What is a co-variable?

A

Two variables that are examined for a correlation/relationship

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49
Q

What does operationalisation mean?

A

Defining the variables clearly so that they can be objectively manipulated/measured

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50
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A specific, testable statement which makes a prediction about the results, must include the IV and DV (operationalised)

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51
Q

What is an experimental hypothesis?

A

Predicts that the IV will have an effect on the DV
Two types of this

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52
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

Predicts that the results have come about through chance (no effect of IV on DV)

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53
Q

What are the types of experimental hypotheses?

A

Directional (one-tailed) and non-directional (two-tailed)

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54
Q

What is a directional hypothesis?

A

Predicts the direction of the results (…better/worse/more/less than…)

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55
Q

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

A

Does not predict the direction of the results (…differently than…)

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56
Q

When are directional hypotheses used?

A

When there has been previous research conducted in the area already
(note: and it has a clear direction - if they contradict use non-directional)

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57
Q

When are non-directional hypotheses used?

A

When there hasn’t been previous research in that area

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58
Q

What are the 4 types of experiments? (how the experiment is being done)

A

Laboratory, field, natural, quasi

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59
Q

Does a lab experiment have to be done in a lab?

A

No

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60
Q

Where does a lab experiment take place?

A

In an environment that has been specifically designed for the experiment

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61
Q

How much control over extraneous variables does the experimenter have in a lab experiment?

A

Full control

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62
Q

Do the participants know they are in a study in a lab experiment?

A

Yes

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63
Q

Is the IV fully controlled in a field experiment?

A

Yes

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64
Q

Where does a field experiment take place?

A

In the participant’s usual environment (same as natural)

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65
Q

Do the participants know they are in a study in a field experiment?

A

Tend to not be aware

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66
Q

How much control over extraneous variables does the experimenter have in a field experiment?

A

Some, less than in a laboratory experiment

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67
Q

Is the IV fully controlled in a laboratory experiment?

A

Yes

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68
Q

Where does a natural experiment take place?

A

In the participant’s usual environment (same as field)

69
Q

How much control over extraneous variables does the experiment have in a natural experiment?

A

None

70
Q

Is the IV fully controlled in a natural experiment?

A

No, it has occurred naturally

71
Q

Do the participants know they are in a study in a natural experiment?

A

Tend to not be aware

72
Q

What does quasi mean? (just to help remember which one is which)

A

‘almost’

73
Q

What is specific to quasi experiments?

A

Participants cannot be randomly allocated to conditions

74
Q

Is the IV fully controlled in a quasi experiment?

A

No, it has occurred naturally

75
Q

Where does a quasi experiment take place?

A

Artificial situation (lab) or natural environment

76
Q

How much control over extraneous variables does the experiment have in a quasi experiment?

A

Some if it is in a lab

77
Q

Why can’t participants be randomly allocated conditions in quasi experiments?

A

The IV is a characteristic of the participant (e.g. gender/age)

78
Q

What are the 3 strengths of laboratory experiments?

A

High control over EVs, IV and DV carefully operationalised -> accurate
EVs controlled -> causal relationship easy to determine
Easy to replicate -> can check consistency

79
Q

What are the 3 weaknesses of laboratory experiments?

A

Behaviour may be unnatural due to unusual environment -> low ecological validity
Demand characteristics due to know they are in experiment -> invalid
Possible ethical issues -> deception to reduce demand characteristics

80
Q

What are the 2 strengths of field experiments?

A

Behaviours likely to be natural -> high ecological validity
Reduced likelihood of demand characteristics -> valid

81
Q

What are the 3 weaknesses of field experiments?

A

Difficult to replicate -> can’t check consistency
Not all EVs controlled -> can’t determine causal relationship
Possible ethical issues -> consent, deception, invasion of privacy
(same as natural)

82
Q

What are the 3 strengths of natural experiments?

A

Behaviours likely to be natural -> high ecological validity
Reduced likelihood of demand characteristics -> valid
Allows investigation of situations where it is not possible to manipulate the IV

83
Q

What are the 3 weaknesses of natural experiments?

A

Difficult to replicate -> can’t check consistency
Not all EVs controlled -> can’t determine causal relationship
Possible ethical issues -> consent, deception, invasion of privacy
(same as field)

84
Q

What is the 1 strength of quasi experiments?

A

Allows investigation of situations where it is not possible to manipulate the IV

85
Q

What is the 1 weakness of quasi experiments?

A

Not all EVs controlled -> can’t determine causal relationship

86
Q

When are extraneous variables found/discovered?

A

When designing the experiment

87
Q

When are confounding variables found/discovered?

A

After the experiment has been conducted

88
Q

What are participant variables?

A

Variables related to the participants involved e.g. gender, age, intelligence

89
Q

How can participant variables be controlled?

A

Using a repeated measures or matched pairs design

90
Q

What are situational variables?

A

Variables related to the situation e.g. temperature, time of day, demand characteristics

91
Q

How can situational variables be controlled?

A

Standardisation

92
Q

How can demand characteristics be controlled?

A

Using a single blind design

93
Q

What are investigator effects?

A

Anything a researcher does that has an effect on participant’s performance (other than intended) e.g. greeting a condition more enthusiastically

94
Q

How can investigator effects be controlled?

A

Standardisation or random allocation

95
Q

What are order effects?

A

The order in which participants complete conditions when using repeated measures

96
Q

How can order effects be controlled?

A

Counterbalancing or randomisation

97
Q

What is standardisation?

A

Keeping everything the same throughout the conditions (except IV)

98
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

1/2 do condition A, 1/2 do condition B, then swap (ABBA)

99
Q

What is randomisation?

A

Participants complete all conditions in random order - pull names from a hat

100
Q

What is random allocation?

A

Participants are allocated to each condition on a random basis - pull names from a hat

101
Q

What is a single blind design?

A

Participants not aware of research aim or condition - reduces demand characteristics

102
Q

What is a double blind design?

A

Neither participants or researcher aware of who’s in which condition

103
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A small-scale trial run of a study

104
Q

What is the aim of a pilot study?

A

To find out if aspects need to be modified before wasting time and money on a full-scale study

105
Q

What do pilot studies never check?

A

Ethical issues - if there are ethical issues then pilot would also be unethical

106
Q

What is an experimental design?

A

How you organise the participants in conditions

107
Q

What are the 3 experimental designs?

A

Repeated measures, independent groups, matched pairs

108
Q

What is repeated measures?

A

The same participants are used in A and then B

109
Q

What is independent groups?

A

Different separate groups used in A or B

110
Q

What is matched pairs?

A

Different groups used in A or B but they are matched on relevant variables e.g. age/gender

111
Q

What is the strength of repeated measures?

A

Removes participant variables

112
Q

What is the strength of independent groups?

A

Reduces demand characteristics

113
Q

What are the 3 strengths of matched pairs?

A

Avoids:
Participant variables
Demand characteristics
Order effects

114
Q

What is the weakness of repeated measures?

A

Order effects

115
Q

What is the weakness of independent groups?

A

Participant variables

116
Q

What is the weakness of matched pairs?

A

Very time consuming

117
Q

What are observational techniques?

A

Looking at and recording behaviour without interfering with it

118
Q

What are the 3 changeable factors in an observation?

A

Setting, level of deception, level of researcher involvement

119
Q

What can an observation focus on?

A

A particular type of behaviour to categorise someone (like strange situation), or to observe how people act in certain situations

120
Q

What is a structured observation?

A

Decide what behaviours you are looking for beforehand

121
Q

What is an unstructured observation?

A

Don’t decide what behaviours you are looking for beforehand

122
Q

How can you modify the setting of an observation?

A

Naturalistic or controlled

123
Q

How can you modify the level of deception of an observation?

A

Overt or covert

124
Q

How can you modify the level of researcher involvement of an observation?

A

Participant or non-participant

125
Q

What is a naturalistic observation?

A

Observing the behaviour in a natural setting for that behaviour, no attempt ton influence environment

126
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A

Observing the behaviour in a prepared situation, altering the environment

127
Q

How does an observation differ from an experiment?

A

No IV/no attempt to control it

128
Q

Can an observation be done in a lab or is that simply an experiment?

A

Yes it can be in a lab

129
Q

What is an overt observation?

A

The participants are aware they are being observed

130
Q

What is a covert observation?

A

The participants are unaware they are being observed

131
Q

What is a participant observation?

A

The researcher becomes part of the group

132
Q

What is a non-participant observation?

A

The researcher observes from a distance

133
Q

What is a strength of naturalistic observations?

A

Behaviour likely to be natural - high ecological validity

134
Q

What is a strength of controlled observations?

A

Researcher has good control - can be repeated, reliability

135
Q

What is a strength of overt observations?

A

More ethical than covert - informed consent

136
Q

What is a strength of covert observations?

A

Low demand characteristics - valid

137
Q

What is a strength of participant observations?

A

Data is likely to be accurate/valid as it is a genuine reflection
Rich, detailed information

138
Q

What is a strength of non-participant observations?

A

Data is likely to be accurate/valid as emotionally detached, objectively observe
Less likely to realise they are being observed so less demand characteristics

139
Q

What is a weakness of naturalistic observations?

A

Researcher has little control, difficult to replicate, reliability

140
Q

What is a weakness of controlled observations?

A

Behaviour less likely to be natural - low ecological validity

141
Q

What is a weakness of overt observations?

A

High demand characteristics - less valid

142
Q

What is a weakness of covert observations?

A

Less ethical than overt - no informed consent

143
Q

What is a weakness of participant observations?

A

Data is less likely to be accurate/valid as not emotionally detached, can’t objectively observe
More likely to realise they are being observed so more demand characteristics

144
Q

What is a weakness of non-participant observations?

A

Data is less likely to be accurate/valid as actual meaning of behaviour may be unclear from a distance

145
Q

How do researchers record data from an unstructured observation?

A

Write down everything they observe, detailed, good for if there are only a few participants

146
Q

How do researchers record data from a structured observation?

A

Use behavioural categories and sampling procedures

147
Q

What are behavioural categories?

A

Simple, operationalised target behaviours in a behavioural grid (tally table)

148
Q

Why must behavioural categories not overlap?

A

So they are interpreted in the same way by observers

149
Q

What are 2 sampling procedures? (observations)

A

Event sampling and time sampling

150
Q

What do sampling procedures do? (observations)

A

Tell us when to mark on the tally

151
Q

What is event sampling?

A

Recording a behaviour each time the specific behaviour occurs

152
Q

What is time sampling?

A

Recording behaviour at set time intervals (watch 1 person for 3 mins, then move on)

153
Q

What is inter-observer reliability?

A

How consistently different observers have recorded the same observed behaviour

154
Q

What does a positive correlation for inter-observer reliability mean?

A

The observers agreed, this is good I-O reliability

155
Q

How can we improve inter-observer reliability?

A

Clearly operationalised behavioural categories
Train them to the same standard

156
Q

What is a meta-analysis?

A

A type of method that collects findings from a number of other studies, all researching the same topic, and then draws conclusions based on them

157
Q

What is the strength of meta-analysis?

A

The volume of data is much larger than for a single investigation due to a large sample size

158
Q

What is the weakness of meta-analysis?

A

Researcher may be biased in selecting the data used

159
Q

Is meta-analysis primary or secondary data?

A

Secondary

160
Q

What is a distribution?

A

The pattern of frequencies (for each score from a set of participants)

161
Q

Where are the mean, median and mode in a normal distributions?

A

All at the exact midpoint

162
Q

In a normal distribution, what is the percentage that fall 2 standard deviations above and below the mid-point?

A

95.4%

163
Q

In a normal distribution, what is the percentage that falls 1 standard deviation above and below the mid-point?

A

68.2%

164
Q

What kind of distribution is symmetrical?

A

A normal distribution

165
Q

To which side is the majority of scores in a positively skewed distribution?

A

Left

166
Q

To which side is the majority of scores in a negatively skewed distribution?

A

Right

167
Q

What order are the mean, median and mode in a positively skewed distribution?

A

Mode, median, mean

168
Q

What order are the mean, median and mode in a negatively skewed distribution?

A

Mean, median, mode

169
Q

What is the file-drawer problem? (Publication bias)

A

Can only use published studies, studies where null hypothesis true less likely to be published so not included in meta-analysis so inaccurate

Psychology (14 decks)

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