Research Methods Beth Flashcards
Complete
Which body is responsible for ethical guidelines?
British Psychological Society
What is ethics a balance between?
Participants and research.
What are the ethical issues?
Consent, deception, confidentiality, debriefing, withdrawal, and protection.
What is informed consent?
Participants have sufficient information about the aims and procedures of the experiment so they can make an informed judgment.
What is deception?
Participants are misled about the true aims of the research
What is the right to withdraw?
Participants are allowed to withdraw from a study at any point.
What is confidentiality?
Participants’ data should not be personally identifiable.
What is protection from harm?
Participants must leave in the same mental and physical state that they arrived in.
What are the three ways of dealing with lack of consent?
Prior general consent, presumptive consent, or retrospective consent.
What is prior general consent?
Informing the participant that they will not be told everything about the aims and procedures of the research, or getting consent to be studied in general in advance.
What is presumptive consent?
Informing a group of individuals who are similar to the participants about the full aims and procedures and seeing if those individuals would give consent.
What is retrospective consent?
Getting informed consent after the research study.
How can deception be dealt with?
Debrief the participants afterwards.
How can the right to withdraw be dealt with?
Provide the right to withdraw by reminding the participant before, during, and afterwards that they can withdraw.
How can confidentiality be dealt with?
Avoid collecting personal details, use numbers or false names.
How can participants be protected from harm?
Terminate the research if they are in distress, provide the right to withdraw, debrief participants.
Why are ethics important in psychological investigations?
Maintain the balance, human rights, need a good reputation for volunteers.
What is sampling?
The technique used to get participants.
What is the sample?
The people that are studied taken from the target population.
What is the target population?
The group of individuals that a researcher wishes to study.
What are the five sampling methods?
Random, systematic, stratified, opportunity, and volunteer.
What is random sampling?
Where every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.
How can random sampling be used?
Putting everyone’s name in a hat, then drawing names without looking - or get someone else to pick the names
What are 2 strengths of random sampling?
No researcher bias, should be representative and so will be generalisable.
What are 3 weaknesses of random sampling?
Could be biased, impractical, time consuming.
What is systematic sampling?
Taking every nth member of the target population to form the sample.
How do you find n for systematic (i think?) sampling?
target population size
———————————
sample size
What are strengths of systematic sampling?
No researcher bias, should be representative and so generalisable.
What are weaknesses of systematic sampling?
Could still be biased.
What is stratified sampling?
Dividing the target population into categories important for the study and then using random sampling with accurate proportions.
What are 3 strengths of stratified sampling?
No bias, representative, generalisable.
What are weaknesses of stratified sampling?
Requires detailed knowledge about the target population, time consuming.
What is opportunity sampling?
Using whoever is immediately available at the time.
What are strengths of opportunity sampling?
Quick and convenient.
What are weaknesses of opportunity sampling?
Biased, unrepresentative, not generalisable.
What should you never refer to volunteer sampling as?
Voluntary.
What is volunteer sampling?
Use whoever puts themselves forward.
What are strengths of volunteer sampling?
Easy, no researcher bias, reaches a large number of people, less risk of demand characteristics.
What are weaknesses of volunteer sampling?
Biased, so unrepresentative and not generalisable.
(a certain kind of person will volunteer/the kind of person who sees the ad)
What is an aim?
A general statement outlining what the researcher intends to investigate and the purpose of the investigation.
What is a variable?
Something that can change or gets changed
Something that is measured
What is a causal relationship in terms of IVs and DVs?
When the IV is the only thing impacting the DV.
Which variable(s) will only ever be in an experiment? (Never in anything else)
Independent and dependent variables.
What is an independent variable?
The variable being manipulated
What is a dependent variable?
The variable being influenced by the IV
What is an extraneous variable?
A variable that could influence the DV other than the IV
What is a confounding variable?
An extraneous variable that is not controlled that moves in time with the IV (present in one condition but not in another)
What is a co-variable?
Two variables that are examined for a correlation/relationship
What does operationalisation mean?
Defining the variables clearly so that they can be objectively manipulated/measured
What is a hypothesis?
A specific, testable statement which makes a prediction about the results, must include the IV and DV (operationalised)
What is an experimental hypothesis?
Predicts that the IV will have an effect on the DV
Two types of this
What is a null hypothesis?
Predicts that the results have come about through chance (no effect of IV on DV)
What are the types of experimental hypotheses?
Directional (one-tailed) and non-directional (two-tailed)
What is a directional hypothesis?
Predicts the direction of the results (…better/worse/more/less than…)
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
Does not predict the direction of the results (…differently than…)
When are directional hypotheses used?
When there has been previous research conducted in the area already
(note: and it has a clear direction - if they contradict use non-directional)
When are non-directional hypotheses used?
When there hasn’t been previous research in that area
What are the 4 types of experiments? (how the experiment is being done)
Laboratory, field, natural, quasi
Does a lab experiment have to be done in a lab?
No
Where does a lab experiment take place?
In an environment that has been specifically designed for the experiment
How much control over extraneous variables does the experimenter have in a lab experiment?
Full control
Do the participants know they are in a study in a lab experiment?
Yes
Is the IV fully controlled in a field experiment?
Yes
Where does a field experiment take place?
In the participant’s usual environment (same as natural)
Do the participants know they are in a study in a field experiment?
Tend to not be aware
How much control over extraneous variables does the experimenter have in a field experiment?
Some, less than in a laboratory experiment
Is the IV fully controlled in a laboratory experiment?
Yes
Where does a natural experiment take place?
In the participant’s usual environment (same as field)
How much control over extraneous variables does the experiment have in a natural experiment?
None
Is the IV fully controlled in a natural experiment?
No, it has occurred naturally
Do the participants know they are in a study in a natural experiment?
Tend to not be aware
What does quasi mean? (just to help remember which one is which)
‘almost’
What is specific to quasi experiments?
Participants cannot be randomly allocated to conditions
Is the IV fully controlled in a quasi experiment?
No, it has occurred naturally
Where does a quasi experiment take place?
Artificial situation (lab) or natural environment
How much control over extraneous variables does the experiment have in a quasi experiment?
Some if it is in a lab
Why can’t participants be randomly allocated conditions in quasi experiments?
The IV is a characteristic of the participant (e.g. gender/age)
What are the 3 strengths of laboratory experiments?
High control over EVs, IV and DV carefully operationalised -> accurate
EVs controlled -> causal relationship easy to determine
Easy to replicate -> can check consistency
What are the 3 weaknesses of laboratory experiments?
Behaviour may be unnatural due to unusual environment -> low ecological validity
Demand characteristics due to know they are in experiment -> invalid
Possible ethical issues -> deception to reduce demand characteristics
What are the 2 strengths of field experiments?
Behaviours likely to be natural -> high ecological validity
Reduced likelihood of demand characteristics -> valid
What are the 3 weaknesses of field experiments?
Difficult to replicate -> can’t check consistency
Not all EVs controlled -> can’t determine causal relationship
Possible ethical issues -> consent, deception, invasion of privacy
(same as natural)
What are the 3 strengths of natural experiments?
Behaviours likely to be natural -> high ecological validity
Reduced likelihood of demand characteristics -> valid
Allows investigation of situations where it is not possible to manipulate the IV
What are the 3 weaknesses of natural experiments?
Difficult to replicate -> can’t check consistency
Not all EVs controlled -> can’t determine causal relationship
Possible ethical issues -> consent, deception, invasion of privacy
(same as field)
What is the 1 strength of quasi experiments?
Allows investigation of situations where it is not possible to manipulate the IV
What is the 1 weakness of quasi experiments?
Not all EVs controlled -> can’t determine causal relationship
When are extraneous variables found/discovered?
When designing the experiment
When are confounding variables found/discovered?
After the experiment has been conducted
What are participant variables?
Variables related to the participants involved e.g. gender, age, intelligence
How can participant variables be controlled?
Using a repeated measures or matched pairs design
What are situational variables?
Variables related to the situation e.g. temperature, time of day, demand characteristics
How can situational variables be controlled?
Standardisation
How can demand characteristics be controlled?
Using a single blind design
What are investigator effects?
Anything a researcher does that has an effect on participant’s performance (other than intended) e.g. greeting a condition more enthusiastically
How can investigator effects be controlled?
Standardisation or random allocation
What are order effects?
The order in which participants complete conditions when using repeated measures
How can order effects be controlled?
Counterbalancing or randomisation
What is standardisation?
Keeping everything the same throughout the conditions (except IV)
What is counterbalancing?
1/2 do condition A, 1/2 do condition B, then swap (ABBA)
What is randomisation?
Participants complete all conditions in random order - pull names from a hat
What is random allocation?
Participants are allocated to each condition on a random basis - pull names from a hat
What is a single blind design?
Participants not aware of research aim or condition - reduces demand characteristics
What is a double blind design?
Neither participants or researcher aware of who’s in which condition
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale trial run of a study
What is the aim of a pilot study?
To find out if aspects need to be modified before wasting time and money on a full-scale study
What do pilot studies never check?
Ethical issues - if there are ethical issues then pilot would also be unethical
What is an experimental design?
How you organise the participants in conditions
What are the 3 experimental designs?
Repeated measures, independent groups, matched pairs
What is repeated measures?
The same participants are used in A and then B
What is independent groups?
Different separate groups used in A or B
What is matched pairs?
Different groups used in A or B but they are matched on relevant variables e.g. age/gender
What is the strength of repeated measures?
Removes participant variables
What is the strength of independent groups?
Reduces demand characteristics
What are the 3 strengths of matched pairs?
Avoids:
Participant variables
Demand characteristics
Order effects
What is the weakness of repeated measures?
Order effects
What is the weakness of independent groups?
Participant variables
What is the weakness of matched pairs?
Very time consuming
What are observational techniques?
Looking at and recording behaviour without interfering with it
What are the 3 changeable factors in an observation?
Setting, level of deception, level of researcher involvement
What can an observation focus on?
A particular type of behaviour to categorise someone (like strange situation), or to observe how people act in certain situations
What is a structured observation?
Decide what behaviours you are looking for beforehand
What is an unstructured observation?
Don’t decide what behaviours you are looking for beforehand
How can you modify the setting of an observation?
Naturalistic or controlled
How can you modify the level of deception of an observation?
Overt or covert
How can you modify the level of researcher involvement of an observation?
Participant or non-participant
What is a naturalistic observation?
Observing the behaviour in a natural setting for that behaviour, no attempt ton influence environment
What is a controlled observation?
Observing the behaviour in a prepared situation, altering the environment
How does an observation differ from an experiment?
No IV/no attempt to control it
Can an observation be done in a lab or is that simply an experiment?
Yes it can be in a lab
What is an overt observation?
The participants are aware they are being observed
What is a covert observation?
The participants are unaware they are being observed
What is a participant observation?
The researcher becomes part of the group
What is a non-participant observation?
The researcher observes from a distance
What is a strength of naturalistic observations?
Behaviour likely to be natural - high ecological validity
What is a strength of controlled observations?
Researcher has good control - can be repeated, reliability
What is a strength of overt observations?
More ethical than covert - informed consent
What is a strength of covert observations?
Low demand characteristics - valid
What is a strength of participant observations?
Data is likely to be accurate/valid as it is a genuine reflection
Rich, detailed information
What is a strength of non-participant observations?
Data is likely to be accurate/valid as emotionally detached, objectively observe
Less likely to realise they are being observed so less demand characteristics
What is a weakness of naturalistic observations?
Researcher has little control, difficult to replicate, reliability
What is a weakness of controlled observations?
Behaviour less likely to be natural - low ecological validity
What is a weakness of overt observations?
High demand characteristics - less valid
What is a weakness of covert observations?
Less ethical than overt - no informed consent
What is a weakness of participant observations?
Data is less likely to be accurate/valid as not emotionally detached, can’t objectively observe
More likely to realise they are being observed so more demand characteristics
What is a weakness of non-participant observations?
Data is less likely to be accurate/valid as actual meaning of behaviour may be unclear from a distance
How do researchers record data from an unstructured observation?
Write down everything they observe, detailed, good for if there are only a few participants
How do researchers record data from a structured observation?
Use behavioural categories and sampling procedures
What are behavioural categories?
Simple, operationalised target behaviours in a behavioural grid (tally table)
Why must behavioural categories not overlap?
So they are interpreted in the same way by observers
What are 2 sampling procedures? (observations)
Event sampling and time sampling
What do sampling procedures do? (observations)
Tell us when to mark on the tally
What is event sampling?
Recording a behaviour each time the specific behaviour occurs
What is time sampling?
Recording behaviour at set time intervals (watch 1 person for 3 mins, then move on)
What is inter-observer reliability?
How consistently different observers have recorded the same observed behaviour
What does a positive correlation for inter-observer reliability mean?
The observers agreed, this is good I-O reliability
How can we improve inter-observer reliability?
Clearly operationalised behavioural categories
Train them to the same standard
What is a meta-analysis?
A type of method that collects findings from a number of other studies, all researching the same topic, and then draws conclusions based on them
What is the strength of meta-analysis?
The volume of data is much larger than for a single investigation due to a large sample size
What is the weakness of meta-analysis?
Researcher may be biased in selecting the data used
Is meta-analysis primary or secondary data?
Secondary
What is a distribution?
The pattern of frequencies (for each score from a set of participants)
Where are the mean, median and mode in a normal distributions?
All at the exact midpoint
In a normal distribution, what is the percentage that fall 2 standard deviations above and below the mid-point?
95.4%
In a normal distribution, what is the percentage that falls 1 standard deviation above and below the mid-point?
68.2%
What kind of distribution is symmetrical?
A normal distribution
To which side is the majority of scores in a positively skewed distribution?
Left
To which side is the majority of scores in a negatively skewed distribution?
Right
What order are the mean, median and mode in a positively skewed distribution?
Mode, median, mean
What order are the mean, median and mode in a negatively skewed distribution?
Mean, median, mode
What is the file-drawer problem? (Publication bias)
Can only use published studies, studies where null hypothesis true less likely to be published so not included in meta-analysis so inaccurate
