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Research Methods Beth 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the three things to consider when choosing an appropriate statistical test?

A

1) Are we testing a difference or relationship?
2) What type of experimental design has been used/Are we looking for an association or correlation?
3) What level of measurement was used?

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2
Q

What are the 8 statistical tests?

A

Sign test.
Chi-squared test.
Wilcoxon.
Mann-Whitney.
Related t-test.
Unrelated t-test.
Spearman’s rho.
Pearson’s r

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3
Q

If we are testing the difference, used independent groups, and collected nominal level data, what statistical test do we use?

A

Chi-squared test

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4
Q

If we are testing the difference, used independent groups, and collected at least ordinal level data, what statistical test do we use?

A

Mann-Whitney

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5
Q

If we are testing the difference, used independent groups, and collected at least interval level data, what statistical test do we use?

A

Unrelated t-test

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6
Q

If we are testing the difference, used repeated measures or matched pairs, and collected nominal level data, what statistical test do we use?

A

Sign test

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7
Q

Which statistical test do we need to be able to calculate?

A

Sign test

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8
Q

If we are testing the difference, used repeated measures or matched pairs, and collected at least ordinal level data, what statistical test do we use?

A

Wilcoxon

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9
Q

If we are testing the difference, used repeated measures or matched pairs, and collected at least interval level data, what statistical test do we use?

A

Related t-test

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10
Q

If we are looking for an association and collected nominal level data, what statistical test do we use?

A

Chi-squared test

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11
Q

If we are testing the relationship, are looking for a correlation, and collected at least ordinal level data, what statistical test do we use?

A

Spearman’s rho

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12
Q

If we are testing the relationship, are looking for a correlation, and collected at least interval level data, what statistical test do we use?

A

Pearson’s r

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13
Q

What do inferential statistics allow us to do?

A

Conclude whether any difference or relationship found is statistically significant

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14
Q

At the end of statistical testing, what does the researcher do?

A

Support one hypothesis and reject the other

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15
Q

What is significance?

A

When the research findings are sufficiently strong to enable a researcher to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis

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16
Q

What does a low statistical significance mean?

A

There is a high probability the results are due to chance so testing the target population would yield different results

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17
Q

What does a high statistical significance mean?

A

There is a low probability the results are due to chance so testing the target population would yield similar results

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18
Q

What is probability?

A

A numerical measure of the likelihood that certain events will occur

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19
Q

What is the significance level?

A

A margin of error that a researcher is willing to accept in their research

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20
Q

What is the most commonly selected significance level?

A

5%

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21
Q

What is a more stringent level of significance?

A

1%

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22
Q

What is a more lenient level of significance?

A

10%

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23
Q

Using significance levels, what does it mean if the results are statistically significant?

A

The likelihood of the results coming about by chance is equal to or less than 5%/1%/10%

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24
Q

Which statistical tests are non-parametric?

A

Spearman’s rho, Wilcoxon, Mann-Whitney, Chi-squared test, Sign test
(the top 2 rows)

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25
Q

Which statistical tests are parametric?

A

Pearson’s r, Related t-test, Unrelated t-test
(the bottom row)

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26
Q

When do we use the more stringent level of significance?

A

Often for medical research

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27
Q

What are levels of measurement?

A

How the psychologist has measured their dependent variable - nominal, ordinal, interval

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28
Q

What is nominal data?

A

Data which appears in categories (often not numerical) - often referred to as frequency data. Data is discrete (cannot be in more than 1 category)

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29
Q

What is ordinal data?

A

Data is ordered but the intervals between each value are unequal, can be in rank order, often comes from the researcher creating scales themselves

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30
Q

What is interval data?

A

Data can be ordered and the intervals between each value are equal e.g. time, length, temperature (already known scales)

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31
Q

What is the order of the levels of measurement from least to most sophisticated?

A

Nominal, ordinal, interval

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32
Q

Which is the only statistical test which tests for an association?

A

Chi-squared test - can only be nominal level data

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33
Q

Is an association a relationship?

A

No but on the statistical tests table it looks like it is

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34
Q

What is a statistical test (how do they work)?

A

They are formulae

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35
Q

What level of measurement is ‘number of x’? And why?

A

Can argue ordinal or interval but make sure to explain why.
Ordinal: x may not be of equal difficulty
Interval: there is equal distance between numbers

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36
Q

What measure of central tendency is used for nominal data?

A

Mode

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37
Q

What measure of central tendency is used for nominal data?

A

Median

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38
Q

What measure of central tendency is used for ordinal data?

A

Mean

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39
Q

What measure of dispersion is used for interval data?

A

Range

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40
Q

What measure of dispersion is used for ordinal data?

A

Range

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41
Q

What measure of dispersion is used for interval data?

A

Standard Deviation

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42
Q

If there are outliers, what measure of central tendency do we use for interval data?

A

Median

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43
Q

How do we answer the question: Why is x the best measure of central tendency/dispersion for this data?

A

Because it’s nominal/ordinal/interval data

44
Q

What are 3 reasons to use the sign test?

A

Testing for a difference, repeated measures or matched pairs design, nominal level data

45
Q

What are the steps for calculating the sign test?

A

Convert data into a summary table (condition A is always the column after participant).
Work out the sign of difference (A-B).
Exclude any with an = sign.
Add up total number for - and + (separately).
S is the number of the least frequent sign.
Compare to the critical values

46
Q

What do you need to know for a critical value table for the sign test?

A

Whether it was a directional or non-directional hypothesis, the significance level, N (the number of participants excluding any =)

47
Q

What is a two-tailed hypothesis?

A

Non-directional

48
Q

What is a one-tailed hypothesis?

A

Directional

49
Q

How do we know if the difference is significant for the sign test?

A

If S is less than or equal to the critical value, it’s significant

50
Q

Why is statistical testing used in research?

A

Researchers use statistical tests to determine the likelihood that the effect/difference/relationship they have found occurred by chance or not

51
Q

What is the hypothesis (not the null) called when it isn’t an experiment? i.e. looking for a relationship/correlation

A

‘Alternate’ - rather than saying experimental, these are still directional/non-directional

52
Q

What is content analysis?

A

A form of indirect observation (observing artefacts rather than people)

53
Q

What are examples of artefacts for a content analysis?

A

Books, magazines, TV programmes, films, diaries, songs, interviews, presentation, discussions
(can be already produced or produced specifically for the investigation)

54
Q

What is the process of content analysis?

A

Collect data/material, read/watch/listen it to familiarise themselves with it, choose coding units, code using them (coding is tallying)

55
Q

What statistical test do we use after a content analysis?

A

Chi-squared

56
Q

What type of data does content analysis give us?

A

Quantitative

57
Q

What type of data does thematic analysis give us?

A

Qualitative

58
Q

Is thematic analysis subjective or objective?

A

Subjective

59
Q

What is the process of thematic analysis?

A

Transcribe the material, read, get a feel for the themes that keep cropping up, these become the themes, select every quote for the themes

60
Q

What are the 4 strengths of content analysis?

A

Ethical.
High ecological validity.
Reliable.
Flexible

61
Q

What are the 3 strengths of thematic analysis?

A

Ethical.
High ecological validity.
Flexible

62
Q

What are the limitations of content analysis?

A

Possible observer bias.
Cultural bias.
Sample may be biased.
No cause and effect

63
Q

What are the limitations of thematic analysis?

A

Possible observer bias.
Cultural bias.
Unreliable.
Sample may be biased.
No cause and effect

64
Q

What is reliability?

A

How consistent the findings are/measurement is. How much we can depend on it.
If it is measuring the same thing for the same person, each time it should produce the same results

65
Q

What are the 2 ways of assessing reliability?

A

Test-retest and inter-observer reliability

66
Q

What is the test-retest method?

A

Study repeated with the same participants to see if simialr results are obtained. It is necessary to consider the amount of time between each test, ideal is 2 weeks

67
Q

What is inter-observer reliability?

A

Whether all the researchers involved are gathering consistent observations/ratings

68
Q

How do we check if similar results are obtained in assessing reliability?

A

We compare them using a correlation, there must be a coefficient of 0.8 or above

69
Q

What are some of the most reliable research methods?

A

Lab experiments, structured interviews, questionnaires

70
Q

What are some of the least reliable research methods?

A

Natural experiments, case studies, unstructured interviews

71
Q

What are some of the most valid research methods?

A

Field experiments (ecological), unstructured interviews, covert observations

72
Q

What are some of the least valid research methods?

A

Lab experiments, structured interviews, questionnaires, overt observations

73
Q

How can reliability be improved in general?

A

Standardisation.
Pilot studies

74
Q

How can reliability be improved for experiments?

A

Standardisation.
Take an average

75
Q

How can reliability be improved for questionnaires/psychological tests?

A

Careful wording
Closed questions

76
Q

How can reliability be improved for interviews?

A

Standardisation.
Train interviewers.
Careful wording

77
Q

How can reliability be improved for observational techniques (including content analysis)?

A

Operationalise.
Cover all possibilities.
Train observers

78
Q

Which statistical test do we use for reliability or validity?

A

Spearman’s rho

79
Q

What is validity?

A

Whether the findings are genuine/accurate/meaningful/truthful.
Whether the researcher is measuring what they claim to be measuring and if those findings can be generalised beyond the research setting

80
Q

What are the 2 types of validity?

A

Internal and external

81
Q

What are the 2 types of external validity?

A

Ecological and temporal

82
Q

What is internal validity?

A

Whether we are measuring what we set out to measure inside the study, whether there are extraneous variables like demand characteristics and investigator effects

83
Q

What is external validity?

A

Whether we can generalise the findings to outside of the research settings

84
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

The extent to which the findings can be generalised to other settings

85
Q

What is temporal validity?

A

The extent to which the findings can be obtained at other times or in other historical eras

86
Q

What are the 2 ways of assessing validity?

A

Face and concurrent validity

87
Q

What is face validity?

A

Getting an expert to look at the test, measure or scale used to confirm that it does measure what it claims to measure

88
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

(used for self-invented tests) Compare (via correlation) a test, measure or scale with an already established/recognised one by getting participants to do both tests.
Time period not needed, but often wait 2 weeks

89
Q

How can validity be improved in general?

A

Single blind procedure.
Double blind procedure.
Randomisation

90
Q

How can validity be improved for experiments?

A

Standardisation.
Single blind procedure.
Control group.
Use tasks people use in everyday situations

91
Q

How can validity be improved for questionnaires/psychological tests?

A

Allow anonymity.
Allow self-completion.
Only include questions that measure what is supposed to be measured

92
Q

How can validity be improved for interviews?

A

Unstructured to build rapport.
Train interviewers.
Only include questions that measure what is supposed to be measured

93
Q

How can validity be improved for observational techniques?

A

Use overt.
Use naturalistic.
Use participant.
Operationalise.
Train observers

94
Q

How can validity be improved for qualitative methods (case studies, unstructured interviews)?

A

Use direct quotes.
Triangulation (using several methods)

95
Q

What are the 2 types of error?

A

Type 1 and Type 2

96
Q

How can you tell what the risk of making a type 1 error?

A

It’s the same as the level of significance

97
Q

What is a type 1 error called?

A

An error of optimists, false positive

98
Q

What do we say has happened for a type 1 error?

A

The researcher rejected the null hypothesis and accepted the experimental/alternate hypothesis, and they were incorrect

99
Q

Why do type 1 errors occur?

A

The researcher has been too lenient, the significance level was too easy to reach/leniant

100
Q

What is a type 2 error called?

A

An error of pessimists, false negative

101
Q

What do we say has happened for a type 2 error?

A

The researcher accepted the null hypothesis and rejected the experimental/alternate hypothesis, and they were incorrect

102
Q

Why do type 2 errors occur?

A

The researcher has been too cautious, the significance level was too hard to reach/stringent

103
Q

Why is the 5% significance level the generally accepted level?

A

It is the perfect balance between making a type 1 and type 2 error, it minimises the chance/risk of either, it’s the perfect compromise

104
Q

What are the 3 conditions you need to meet in order to use a parametric test?

A

Data must be interval level.
Population data must be normally distributed.
Homogeneity of variance

105
Q

What do you do if you can’t use a parametric test?

A

Use the test above it in the table (ordinal level)

106
Q

Why are parametric tests preferred?

A

They are more powerful/robust as they are more likely to detect significance

107
Q

What is homogeneity of variance?

A

The standard deviations must be similar/the same

Psychology (14 decks)

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