Stereotyping

Question 1

How do we define groups in social psychology? Give examples of different types of groups.

Answer 1

Two or more people perceived as having at least one of the following characteristics: Interactions over Interactions over a period of time. a period of time. Joint membership in a social Joint membership in a social category. category. Common fate

Question 2

Define stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. How do these 3 reactions map onto cognition, affect, and behavior? How do these reactions influence each other?

Answer 2

 Stereotypes: Beliefs that associate a whole group of people with certain traits. Prejudice: Negative feelings about others because of their connection to a social group. Discrimination: Negative behaviors : Negative Negative behaviors behaviorsdirected against persons because of their membership in a particular group membership membership in a particular particular group.

Question 3

What factors contribute to stereotype formation?

Answer 3

1.. Culture & cognition Culture & cognition2.. Social cate Social categorization3.. Ingroups vs. Outgroups

Question 4

How do cultural influences affect how and when we categorize people? Where do these influences come from?

Answer 4

Affect how and when we will categorize people Factors include: Factors include: Family Media Socialization

Question 5

What is social categorization? What are the benefits and costs of social categorization? Consider what categories we use, and what factors will influence which categories we use at any given time.

Answer 5

The classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes Save time and effortLeads us to:  Overestimate Overestimate differences between groups Overestimate differences differences between between groups Underestimate differences within groups

Question 6

What are ingroups and outgroups? How does such categorization lead us to exaggerate the differences between ingroups and outgroups? What is the outgroup homogeneity effect? Why are outgroups seen as homogeneous?

Answer 6

Ingroups: Groups that you identify with Outg p rous: Grou py y s that you do not identif ou do not identifywith“Us” vs. “Them”Consequences Consequences: 1. Exaggerate differences erences 2.. Outgroup Outgroup homogeneity effectOften do not notice subtle differences among outgroups outgroups because have little because have little personal contact with them. Often do not encounter a representative sample of sample of outgroup outgroup members. members. New neuroscientific neuroscientific research examining research examiningthis effect

Question 7

List the 5 mechanisms of stereotype maintenance.

Answer 7

1.. Illusor Illusory correlations2.. Attributions Attributions3. Subtyping Subtyping & contrast effects & contrast effects4.. Confirmation biases Confirmation biases5.. Self-fulfilling prophecies

Question 8

What is illusory correlation? Describe the 2 processes that contribute to illusory correlation, and give an example demonstrating each. How are each of these processes related to stereotype maintenance?

Answer 8

An overestimate of the association between variables that are slightly or not at all correlated  Two processes:1.. Overestimate the association between Overestimate the association between distinctive variables2.. Overestimate the association between Overestimate the association between variables that they expect to go together

Question 9

How can the fundamental attribution error help to perpetuate stereotypes?

Answer 9

2 Attributions 2. Attributions Fundamental attribution error can perpetuate stereotypes Interpret stereotype Interpret stereotype consistent consistentinformation as a result of information as a result of internal internal causes Interpret stereotype inconsistenti f ti lt f information as a resu on as a result o f ext lerna causes

Question 10

Describe subtyping and contrast effects. When do we engage in these processes? How do they help us to maintain stereotypes?

Answer 10

Subtyping: People will often create subgroups of the larger group to explain individuals who are discrepant with the stereotype Contrast effects Contrast effects: A tendency to perceive : A tendency tendency to perceive perceivestimuli that differ from expectations as being even more different than they really being even more different different than they reallyare

Question 11

How does the confirmation bias contribute to stereotype maintenance? When are we especially likely to engage in confirmation bias? How was the confirmation bias demonstrated in the following studies?: a) Allport & Postman’s study of perceptions of a picture of a subway train filled with passengers, and b) Stone et al’s study of perceptions of a college basketball game.

Answer 11

People often process information in a manner that will confirm our manner that will confirm our expectations expectations Especially when behaviour is ambiguous  People seek information that will confirm seek information that will confirm the stereotype the stereotype

Question 12

How can self-fulfilling prophecies contribute to stereotypes? How did Word et al’s studies of interview behavior demonstrate that self-fulfilling prophecies can lead job applicants to perform in ways that make them less likely to be selected for a job?

Answer 12

Our stereotypes can cause us to treat others in ways that encourage them to behave in a stereotypical mannerJob interviews of Black & White menWhen j pp , ob a pplicant was Black licant was Black,interviewers: Sat further away Sat further away Ended the interview 25% sooner M d 50% h Made 50% more speec more speech errorsWhite applicants who were treated likeBlack applicants: More nervous Less effective performance Less effective performance Perceived interviewer as less adequate and friendly

Question 13

What factors make automatic activation more or less likely to happen?

Answer 13

May be activated without our awarenessFactors:1. Exposure to the stereotype Exposure Exposure to the stereotype stereotype2.. Cognitive factors Cognitive factors3.. Motivation MotivationSEE CHART in notes

Question 14

Describe how motivation can affect activation or suppression of stereotypes using the study where participants received feedback from white or black doctors as an example.

Answer 14

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Question 15

Who was Amadou Diallo and how does his story illustrate automatic stereotype activation? What evidence suggests that implicit prejudice can cause police officers to shoot at black suspects more readily than at white suspects?

Answer 15

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Question 16

How does the fundamental motive to affiliate relate to prejudice and discrimination? What is optimal distinctiveness theory? How does terror management theory explain behaviours toward outgroups?

Answer 16

 Humans live, work, play, and fight in groups A fundamental motive is need to affiliate Serves basic motive of self Serves basic motive of self-protection protection Also can generate “Us vs. Them” mentality People tend to favor People tend to favor ingroups ingroups (us) over (us) over outgroups outgroups (them) Optimal distinctiveness theory Terror management Terror management theory

Question 17

Describe the Robber’s cave study? What did the researchers need to do in this study to reduce intergroup conflict? How did this study demonstrate realistic conflict theory? Is competition for survival necessary for the development of ingroup-outgroup conflict?

Answer 17

Study phases:1.. Formation of Formation of group identit identityVSgp y• Eagles vs. Rattlers Eagles vs. Rattlers2 Competition for resourcesVS.2. Competition for resources• Resulted in intense conflict Resulted in intense conflict3. R d tieucon ofi tner-group con group confli tc• Creation of Creation of superordinate superordinate goals was the goals was the onl f l tt t

Question 18

What value might lie in our flexible capacity to think of ourselves in terms of both personal and social identities? According to Tajfel, why do we inflate our view of the groups to which we belong? What is the minimal groups paradigm? What 2 predictions come from social identity theory? Describe the study by Fein & Spencer support these predictions? How are social identity motives enhanced by a) group size, b) status within the ingroup, c) investment in the ingroup, and d) dividualistic cultures? Do collectivist cultures ever favour their ingroups?

Answer 18

Ingroup Ingroup favouritism favouritism: Tendency to discriminate in discriminate in favor of ingroups ingroups over outgroups Minimal g g roup paradigms Examples?Social Identity Theory Identity Theory: We favor ingroups ingroupsover outgroups outgroups in order to enhance our in order to enhance our self-esteem

Question 19

How do people cope with ingroups of low status or with weak ingroup members?

Answer 19

To preserve the integrity of the To preserve the integrity of the ingroup ingroup, may treat less able people more harshly. May de-emphasize the importance of emphasize emphasize the importance importance ofdomains in which the domains in which the ingroup ingroup is relatively is relatively low in status low in status.

Question 20

What is racism? What is the difference between overt and modern racism? How has overt racism changed over time? How do we measure modern racism with the IAT? What has research with the IAT demonstrated about white college students? How have researchers shown that implicit stereotypes can lead to prejudicial behavior (in interpersonal interactions, sentencing to the death penalty, and attribution of race to faces portraying different expressions) even in the absence of conscious prejudice?

Answer 20

Discrimination Discrimination based on a person’s racial based on a person’s racial backgroundRacism can exist at all levels: Racism can exist at all levels: levels: Individual  Institutional Cultural

Question 21

What are stigmatized groups? How are the effects of discrimination demonstrated in the Blue eyes – Brown eyes study conducted by a teacher in her classroom?

Answer 21

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Question 22

What reactions might stigmatized groups have to perceiving discrimination? What is the impact of these reactions on self-esteem? How did a study of Black participants receiving feedback from White students demonstrate these effects?

Answer 22

Stigmatized: Individuals who, by virtue of their membership in a particular social group, are targets of negative stereotypes and are devalued in stereotypes and are devalued in society society Consequences of discrimination:  Perceiving discrimination Perceiving discrimination Stereotype threatDiscriminated people may: Explain neg y ative evaluations by others as prejudice Explain Explain positive evaluations by others as positive evaluations by others as reverse discrimination Impact on self Impact on self-esteem? esteem

Question 23

What is stereotype threat? Why does stereotype threat occur? What are the consequences for task performance and disidentification?

Answer 23

Fear among members of a group that they may confirm or be judged in terms of a negative stereotype Consequences Task performance Task performance Disidentification

Question 24

What are 3 methods for reducing discrimination? What is the contact hypothesis, and under what necessary conditions is the contact hypothesis supported?

Answer 24

1.. Intergroup contact Intergroup contact2.. The Jigsaw classroom The Jigsaw classroom3.. Decategorization & Recategorization DecategorizatioContact hypothesis: Direct contact between members of rival groups will reduce discrimination ONLY IF:1.. Equal status Equal status2. Personal interaction Personal interaction3.. Cooperative activities Cooperative activities4. Social norms Social norms

Question 25

What is the jigsaw classroom and how does it work? What are the consequences for discrimination? How is the jigsaw classroom similar to the Robber’s Cave study?

Answer 25

Regular classroom settings foster competitionIn jigsaw classroom:  Divide children into groups Divide children children into groups Each member responsible for one aspect of lesson of lesson Children need each other in order to learn

Question 26

How are decategorization and recategorization related to the reduction of discrimination?

Answer 26

Decategorization & Recategorization Decategorization: Pay less attention to group boundaries & see group members as individuals Recategorization: Leads to changes in people’s conceptions of groups“They” become “We”