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Psychology > Statistics > Flashcards

Statistics Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two types of approaches to making sense of psychological phenomena?

A

P-Grammar and M-Grammar

P-Grammar is person-focused and idiographic, while M-Grammar is molecule-focused and nomothetic.

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2
Q

What does RDA stand for in the context of psychological methodologies?

A

RDA2, RDA2, and RDA3

These are specific methods that will be learned over the next three years.

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3
Q

Define epistemology in the context of psychological approaches.

A

A theory of knowledge

Epistemology concerns how we understand and interpret knowledge in psychology.

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4
Q

Define ontology in the context of psychological approaches.

A

What we believe we know to be true

Ontology refers to the nature of reality and existence as understood in psychology.

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5
Q

What does P-Grammar focus on?

A

Person-focused

P-Grammar is associated with social sciences and idiographic approaches.

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6
Q

What does M-Grammar focus on?

A

Molecule-focused

M-Grammar is associated with natural sciences and nomothetic approaches.

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7
Q

True or False: The methodologies used in psychology are independent of one’s perspective.

A

False

The methodologies and theories formed are determined by one’s perspective.

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8
Q

Fill in the blank: P-Grammar is associated with _______ sciences.

A

social

P-Grammar emphasizes individual cases and qualitative methods.

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9
Q

Fill in the blank: M-Grammar is associated with _______ sciences.

A

natural

M-Grammar emphasizes general laws and quantitative methods.

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10
Q

What is the primary assumption of the nomothetic approach in psychology?

A

For things to be understood, they need to be observable and measurable

This approach leads to laws that are predictable and generalizable.

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11
Q

What does the nomothetic approach assume about mental processes?

A

Mental processes can be explained in universal terms and applied to all subjects

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12
Q

According to the nomothetic approach, what is the focus of psychological study?

A

The individual, rather than the (social) group

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13
Q

True or False: The nomothetic approach considers psychological processes to be observable and measurable.

A

True

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14
Q

Fill in the blank: The nomothetic approach is driven by _______ assumptions.

A

[positivist]

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15
Q

What does the idiographic approach in psychology emphasize?

A

The importance of social and cultural context in understanding psychological processes

This approach suggests that universal laws are not appropriate due to the variability of psychological phenomena.

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16
Q

What are the key assumptions of the idiographic approach?

A
  • Psychological phenomena vary from time to time
  • Psychological phenomena are culturally determined
  • Understanding psychological processes requires understanding the intention behind them
  • Psychological processes are influenced by social phenomena

These assumptions highlight the necessity of considering social influence in psychological understanding.

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17
Q

True or False: The idiographic approach supports the idea of universal psychological laws.

A

False

The idiographic approach argues that universal laws are not appropriate for understanding individual psychological processes.

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18
Q

Fill in the blank: The idiographic approach asserts that psychological processes are influenced by _______.

A

[social phenomena]

This emphasizes the need to consider social influences in psychological studies.

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19
Q

What must one understand to comprehend psychological processes according to the idiographic approach?

A

The intention behind the psychological processes

Understanding intention is crucial in this approach to grasp how psychological phenomena manifest.

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20
Q

What are the two methodological approaches mentioned?

A

Qualitative (discursive) and Quantitative

Qualitative is text-based, while Quantitative emphasizes empirical measurement.

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21
Q

What does the qualitative approach emphasize?

A

Analysis of meaning and understanding of social context

It does not allow for generalizations or simple explanations.

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22
Q

What is the main focus of the quantitative approach?

A

Empirical measurement of behavior to establish patterns and laws

It aims for universal and generalizable conclusions.

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23
Q

Fill in the blank: The qualitative approach deals with _______.

A

qualities

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24
Q

Fill in the blank: The quantitative approach deals with _______.

A

quantities

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25
Q

True or False: The qualitative approach offers simple or reductionist explanations.

A

False

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26
Q

True or False: The quantitative approach considers social context.

A

False

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27
Q

What does the qualitative approach require for understanding behavior?

A

An understanding of social context

This approach provides complex explanations.

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28
Q

What type of explanations does the quantitative approach offer?

A

Simple explanations of behavior

It often reduces laws to the individual level.

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29
Q

What is the purpose of experiments in research?

A

To measure how different circumstances affect behaviour in a controlled environment to address a hypothesis.

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30
Q

What type of data is typically collected in experiments?

A

Quantitative data, e.g., reaction time to a stimulus, accuracy of memory or perceptual discrimination.

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31
Q

How is quantitative data analysed in experiments?

A

Using statistical tests that permit inferential testing of a hypothesis.

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32
Q

Which principles underpin the analysis of behaviour in experiments?

A

The principles of generality, determinism, predictability, and simplicity.

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33
Q

Fill in the blank: Experiments are underpinned by the principles of _______.

A

[generality, determinism, predictability, simplicity]

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34
Q

True or False: Experiments aim to provide complex explanations for data.

A

False

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35
Q

What does it mean for behaviour to be deterministic in the context of experiments?

A

It means that behaviour is predictable based on certain circumstances.

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36
Q

What is the most likely explanation for data according to experimental principles?

A

The simplest explanation is most likely the correct one.

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37
Q

What is a survey?

A

A means of collecting large amounts of data from participants using self-report questionnaires

Surveys are commonly used in various fields, including psychology, to gather information on individual differences.

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38
Q

In which field is survey research primarily situated?

A

Psychometrics

Psychometrics focuses on measuring psychological constructs and individual differences, such as intelligence.

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39
Q

What does survey research measure?

A

Individual variation on a known psychological construct

Surveys can also help define constructs and their factors.

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40
Q

What types of statistical techniques are used in survey analysis?

A

Descriptive and inferential techniques

Examples include correlation and regression analyses.

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41
Q

True or False: Surveys can only explore known psychological constructs.

A

False

Surveys can also help define constructs and their factors.

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42
Q

Fill in the blank: Surveys are used to collect data through _______.

A

self-report questionnaires

Self-report questionnaires allow participants to provide their own answers and insights.

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43
Q

What is the purpose of using surveys in psychological research?

A

To explore or explain individual differences

This can help in understanding variations in psychological constructs.

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44
Q

What are methods that are interpretive of psychological phenomena?

A

Methods that include the influences of time and social context

These methods recognize the complexity of human experience and the importance of context in understanding psychological phenomena.

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45
Q

What is the principle behind lived experience in interpretive methods?

A

Lived experience has meaning and intentionality and cannot be simplified

This principle emphasizes the need for understanding experiences within a broader social context.

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46
Q

What types of data are used in interpretive psychological methods?

A

Data include:
* Interviews
* Self-reports
* Biography
* Visual data

These data types help address complex questions and issues not suitable for other methods.

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47
Q

What does analysis in interpretive methods involve?

A

Making sense of discourse through the aggregation of themes into complex narratives

This process allows for a deeper understanding of the psychological phenomena being studied.

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48
Q

True or False: Interpretive methods in psychology can simplify lived experiences.

A

False

Interpretive methods emphasize the complexity and context of lived experiences rather than simplifying them.

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49
Q

What is deontological ethics?

A

A rule-based ethical philosophy where the correctness of an action lies in itself, not its consequences.

E.g. lying is always considered wrong, regardless of the outcome.

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50
Q

In consequentialism, how is the correctness of an action determined?

A

By its intended consequences.

E.g. lying is deemed acceptable if done for the ‘right’ reasons, such as protecting someone from harm.

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51
Q

What does virtue ethics emphasize?

A

Character and practical wisdom.

It focuses on what kind of person one should be.

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52
Q

Fill in the blank: In virtue ethics, an honest person would not lie because doing so would not feel _______.

A

right

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53
Q

True or False: In deontological ethics, the outcome of an action is the primary factor in determining its morality.

A

False

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54
Q

What ethical philosophy suggests that lying can be good if it is done for the right reasons?

A

Consequentialism

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55
Q

Fill in the blank: Deontological ethics is also known as _______-based ethics.

A

rule

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56
Q

What is applied when ethical problems arise?

A

A cost-benefit analysis

This analysis evaluates the negative consequences of research against its positive outcomes.

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57
Q

What are the benefits in the context of ethical decision making?

A

The potentially positive consequences of the research for the participants or society

Benefits often extend beyond individual participants to societal impacts.

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58
Q

What does cost-benefit analysis provide?

A

A framework for making ethical decisions

This framework helps to systematically evaluate the implications of research decisions.

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59
Q

What type of judgments does cost-benefit analysis involve?

A

Subjective judgments about costs and benefits

These judgments can vary between individuals based on personal values and perspectives.

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60
Q

True or False: Consequences of research can always be anticipated.

A

False

Examples such as Zimbardo and Milgram illustrate the unpredictability of research outcomes.

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61
Q

What is the first step in the ethical decision-making model?

A

Generate alternative decisions

This step involves brainstorming various options to address the ethical issue at hand.

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62
Q

What comes after generating alternative decisions in the ethical decision-making model?

A

Enumerate consequences of making each decision

This step requires assessing the potential outcomes of each alternative decision.

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63
Q

What is the final step in the ethical decision-making model?

A

Implement the decision

This involves putting the chosen decision into action.

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64
Q

True or False: The ethical decision-making model includes a step for making the decision.

A

True

Making the decision is a critical part of the ethical decision-making process.

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65
Q

What does the BPS Code of ethics outline?

A

Four main principles to guide ethical behaviour:
* Respect
* Competence
* Responsibility
* Integrity

The BPS Code of Ethics provides a framework for ethical conduct in psychology.

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66
Q

What is the first principle of the BPS Code of ethics?

A

Respect

This principle emphasizes the importance of valuing the dignity and worth of individuals.

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67
Q

What is the second principle of the BPS Code of ethics?

A

Competence

This principle requires psychologists to maintain high standards of professional competence.

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68
Q

What is the third principle of the BPS Code of ethics?

A

Responsibility

This principle involves the obligation to act in the best interest of clients and society.

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69
Q

What is the fourth principle of the BPS Code of ethics?

A

Integrity

This principle stresses the importance of honesty and transparency in professional practices.

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70
Q

What is one key ethical principle related to respect?

A

General Respect

This includes acknowledging individual, cultural, and role differences.

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71
Q

What should be avoided to maintain ethical practices?

A

Unfair / prejudiced practices

This ensures fairness and equality in treatment.

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72
Q

What is essential to protect clients’ information?

A

Privacy and Confidentiality

This involves safeguarding sensitive information from unauthorized access.

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73
Q

What is necessary for ethical record keeping?

A

Consent

Clients must give permission for their information to be recorded and stored.

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74
Q

What is a critical component of informed consent?

A

Understanding of nature, purpose, and consequences

Clients should fully grasp what their participation entails.

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75
Q

When is withholding information acceptable?

A

When informed consent cannot be obtained

This may occur in specific circumstances where disclosure may harm the client.

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76
Q

What right do clients have regarding their participation?

A

Right to withdraw

Clients can choose to discontinue their participation at any time.

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77
Q

What must be considered regarding a client’s capacity?

A

Capacity for informed consent

It is crucial to assess if the client can understand and agree to the consent.

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78
Q

What ethical action must be taken regarding data after a client withdraws?

A

Destruction of data

Any personal data must be securely destroyed to protect client confidentiality.

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79
Q

What should professionals develop regarding ethics?

A

A comprehensive awareness of ethics

This includes understanding the ethical implications of their actions and decisions.

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80
Q

How should ethical awareness be integrated into professional activities?

A

By incorporating ethical considerations in decision-making processes

This ensures that professionals act responsibly and ethically in their work.

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81
Q

What is a key aspect of ethical decision making?

A

Recognising that ethical dilemmas will arise

Professionals must be prepared to face and address these dilemmas appropriately.

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82
Q

What is an important responsibility for professionals in ethical practice?

A

Accept responsibility

Professionals are accountable for their ethical decisions and actions.

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83
Q

What should professionals recognize about their competence?

A

The limits of their competence

Practicing within these limits is crucial for ethical practice.

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84
Q

What should professionals do when their competence is impaired?

A

Refrain from practice

This ensures that they do not compromise the quality of care or service.

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85
Q

What action should professionals take if they recognize their impairment?

A

Monitor their own lifestyle to remain alert to signs of impairment

Awareness of personal well-being is essential for maintaining professional competence.

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86
Q

When should professionals seek consultation and supervision?

A

When indicated

This can help them navigate ethical dilemmas and improve their practice.

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87
Q

What areas should professionals engage in?

A

Only those within their skills, obtaining, and education

This guards against unethical practice and promotes professional integrity.

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88
Q

What is a fundamental ethical principle regarding responsibility?

A

General Responsibility

General responsibility includes avoiding harm to clients and maintaining professional integrity.

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89
Q

What should be avoided to maintain ethical responsibility?

A

Personal and professional misconduct

Such misconduct could bring the Society into disrepute.

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90
Q

What is a key consideration for researchers regarding their own safety?

A

Be mindful of potential risks to yourself

Researchers should assess the risks they may face during their work.

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91
Q

What ethical consideration should be taken for research participants?

A

Protection of Research Participants

This includes ensuring their safety and well-being during the research process.

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92
Q

From whose standpoint should all research be considered?

A

Participants

Researchers must prioritize the views and welfare of participants.

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93
Q

What should researchers refrain from using as compensation?

A

Financial compensation

It is advised to avoid financial incentives to ensure ethical standards.

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94
Q

What type of approval is necessary before conducting research?

A

Considered and objective approval of independent advisors

This ensures that research meets ethical standards.

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95
Q

What should clients be informed of during the first contact?

A

They may decline to answer any questions

This respects the autonomy and comfort of clients.

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96
Q

What is an important step to take after research is conducted?

A

Debrief

Debriefing helps participants understand the study and its outcomes.

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97
Q

What are the four main principles outlined in the BPS Code of human research ethics (2021)?

A
  • Respect for the autonomy, privacy and dignity of individuals and communities
  • Scientific integrity
  • Social Responsibility
  • Maximizing benefit and minimizing harm

These principles guide ethical decision-making in research involving human participants.

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98
Q

Define ‘Respect for the autonomy, privacy, and dignity of individuals and communities’.

A

This principle emphasizes the importance of acknowledging and honoring the rights and freedoms of research participants.

It includes obtaining informed consent and ensuring confidentiality.

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99
Q

What does ‘Scientific integrity’ refer to in research ethics?

A

It refers to the commitment to conducting research honestly, transparently, and without fabrication or falsification of data.

This principle ensures the credibility and reliability of research findings.

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100
Q

Explain the principle of ‘Social Responsibility’ in the context of research ethics.

A

This principle involves considering the broader impact of research on society and ensuring that research contributes positively to the community.

Researchers are encouraged to address societal issues and promote welfare.

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101
Q

Fill in the blank: The principle of _______ emphasizes maximizing benefits and minimizing harm in research.

A

Maximizing benefit and minimizing harm

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102
Q

What is the main characteristic of Probability Sampling?

A

It is possible to determine the probability that a participant will be sampled from a population

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103
Q

List the types of Probability Sampling.

A
  • Random
  • Systematic
  • Stratified
  • Cluster
  • Multi-stage sampling
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104
Q

What is a key feature of Non-Probability Sampling?

A

Members of a population may not have an equal probability of being sampled

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105
Q

List the types of Non-Probability Sampling.

A
  • Convenience/Opportunity
  • Quota
  • Snowball
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106
Q

True or False: In Probability Sampling, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

A

True

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107
Q

Fill in the blank: In Non-Probability Sampling, the sampling methods include _______.

A

[Convenience/Opportunity, Quota, Snowball]

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108
Q

Which sampling method allows for the calculation of selection probability?

A

Probability Sampling

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109
Q

What is a random sampling method?

A

Select participants at random (e.g., phone book)

Random sampling ensures that every individual has an equal chance of being selected.

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110
Q

What does systematic sampling involve?

A

Select every ‘nth’ person from the population

This method can help ensure a spread of participants across the population.

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111
Q

Define stratified sampling

A

Similar to systematic but tries to reflect the characteristics of the population

Stratified sampling ensures representation from various subgroups within the population.

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112
Q

What is convenience (opportunity) sampling?

A

Recruit whoever is available/whoever volunteers

This method may lead to bias as it does not ensure a representative sample.

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113
Q

Describe quota sampling

A

Select whoever volunteers with specific characteristics

Quota sampling aims to fill a predetermined number of participants from certain subgroups.

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114
Q

What is snowball sampling?

A

Ask participants to mention the study to those they know

This method is often used in populations that are hard to reach or identify.

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115
Q

What does WEIRD stand for in psychological research?

A

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic

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116
Q

What percentage of the world’s population is considered WEIRD?

A

Approximately 12%

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117
Q

What demographic is most commonly represented in psychological research participants?

A

Young (18-21 years) and female undergraduate students

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118
Q

True or False: The majority of psychological research participants are representative of the global population.

A

False

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119
Q

What significant implications may arise from the overrepresentation of WEIRD participants in research?

A

Implications for psychological theory and understanding

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120
Q

Fill in the blank: The majority of participants in psychological research are _______.

A

WEIRD

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121
Q

What is a survey?

A

Surveys are tools that allow us to ask questions and (typically) get a numeric response

Surveys can be used in various fields to gather quantitative data.

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122
Q

What types of things can surveys measure?

A

Surveys can measure:
* Attitudes
* Opinions
* Variables less easy to measure using other methods (e.g., intelligence, personality)

Surveys are versatile tools in research.

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123
Q

What is the common format used in surveys to gather responses?

A

Most surveys employ questionnaires that require a response from a set of options on an ordinal scale (e.g., Likert Scale)

The Likert Scale is commonly used for measuring attitudes and opinions.

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124
Q

In psychological research, what is the role of surveys?

A

Surveys in psychological research are a form of psychometric assessment

Psychometric assessments help quantify psychological variables.

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125
Q

True or False: Surveys can only measure easily quantifiable variables.

A

False

Surveys can also measure complex variables like personality and intelligence.

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126
Q

Fill in the blank: Surveys typically get a _______ response.

A

numeric response

This allows for quantitative analysis of the collected data.

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127
Q

What is Psychometrics?

A

The science of assessment

Psychometrics involves various methods of measuring psychological attributes.

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128
Q

List some types of assessments we are exposed to.

A
  • Height
  • Weight
  • Blood pressure
  • Driving tests
  • Essays
  • Personality tests

These assessments can vary in their focus and methodology.

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129
Q

What are directly observable features in assessments?

A

Features that can be measured without inference

Examples include height and weight.

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130
Q

What are proxy measures?

A

Measures that indirectly assess a construct

Proxy measures are used when direct measurement is not possible.

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131
Q

What do we mean by unobservable constructs in assessments?

A

Attributes or traits that cannot be directly measured

Examples include intelligence or personality.

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132
Q

Fill in the blank: Psychometrics is the science of _______.

A

[assessment]

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133
Q

True or False: Personality tests are considered a type of psychometric assessment.

A

True

Personality tests assess psychological traits and characteristics.

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134
Q

What is psychometrics?

A

Psychometrics is any type of measure that has been developed that measures unobservable constructs (e.g. conscientiousness)

Psychometrics plays a crucial role in psychology, education, and various fields requiring measurement of psychological traits.

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135
Q

What are the two main bases for psychometric measures?

A
  • Theory Based
  • Statistics Based

These bases ensure that measures are both conceptually sound and empirically validated.

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136
Q

What is True Score Theory also known as?

A

Latent trait theory

True Score Theory is fundamental in psychometrics for understanding the relationship between observed scores and true scores.

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137
Q

What is a key procedure in developing psychometric measures?

A

There is a procedure for developing psychometric measures

This procedure often involves multiple stages, including item generation, testing, and validation.

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138
Q

True or False: Psychometric measures can only be developed based on theory.

A

False

Psychometric measures can be developed based on both theory and statistics.

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139
Q

Fill in the blank: Psychometric development is based on _______.

A

[True Score Theory]

This theory underlies many psychometric methods and practices in measurement.

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140
Q

What is an example of an unobservable construct that psychometrics measures?

A

Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness is a personality trait that can influence various life outcomes, making it an important construct in psychometrics.

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141
Q

What is psychometrics?

A

Psychometrics is any type of measure that has been developed that measures unobservable constructs (e.g. conscientiousness)

Psychometrics plays a crucial role in psychology, education, and various fields requiring measurement of psychological traits.

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142
Q

What are the two main bases for psychometric measures?

A
  • Theory Based
  • Statistics Based

These bases ensure that measures are both conceptually sound and empirically validated.

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143
Q

What is True Score Theory also known as?

A

Latent trait theory

True Score Theory is fundamental in psychometrics for understanding the relationship between observed scores and true scores.

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144
Q

What is a key procedure in developing psychometric measures?

A

There is a procedure for developing psychometric measures

This procedure often involves multiple stages, including item generation, testing, and validation.

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145
Q

True or False: Psychometric measures can only be developed based on theory.

A

False

Psychometric measures can be developed based on both theory and statistics.

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146
Q

Fill in the blank: Psychometric development is based on _______.

A

[True Score Theory]

This theory underlies many psychometric methods and practices in measurement.

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147
Q

What is an example of an unobservable construct that psychometrics measures?

A

Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness is a personality trait that can influence various life outcomes, making it an important construct in psychometrics.

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148
Q

What are self-report questionnaires?

A

Used to further understand behaviour and inner experience

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149
Q

What is the purpose of self-report questionnaires?

A

A way to quantify an aspect of the self

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150
Q

How do self-report questionnaires typically collect responses?

A

Involve a set of statements which are responded to on a scale

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151
Q

How are responses to self-report questionnaires processed?

A

Responses are scored

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152
Q

What is a key characteristic of scoring in self-report questionnaires?

A

Individually or for a group

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153
Q

What is a common use of self-report questionnaires in group settings?

A

To separate extroverts from introverts

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154
Q

What must be tested for self-report questionnaire scales?

A

Reliability

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155
Q

What is another important aspect of self-report questionnaires besides reliability?

A

Validity

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156
Q

What constructs have scales been developed for in self-report questionnaires?

A

Body image and self-esteem

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157
Q

Name a specific self-report scale that measures self-esteem.

A

Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (RSES)

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158
Q

Fill in the blank: The _______ is a scale developed to measure self-objectification.

A

Self-objectification scale

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159
Q

What is the full name of the scale abbreviated as ROBCS?

A

Revised Objectified Body Consciousness Scale

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160
Q

Who developed the Revised Objectified Body Consciousness Scale?

A

Quinn and Lewis, 2005

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161
Q

What are the two very important concepts in keeping measurement error to a minimum?

A

Reliability and Validity

These concepts are essential for ensuring accurate measurements in research.

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162
Q

Define reliability in the context of measurement tools.

A

Reliability refers to whether the tool measures the construct consistently across different situations.

This means that repeated measurements under consistent conditions should yield similar results.

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163
Q

Define validity in the context of measurement tools.

A

Validity refers to whether the tool measures what it is supposed to measure.

It assesses whether the measurement accurately reflects the concept being studied.

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164
Q

True or False: Validity and reliability are the same concepts.

A

False

They represent different aspects of measurement quality.

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165
Q

Fill in the blank: _______ refers to whether a measurement tool yields consistent results across different situations.

A

[Reliability]

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166
Q

Fill in the blank: _______ assesses whether a tool measures what it is intended to measure.

A

[Validity]

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167
Q

What is reliability in measurement?

A

Reliability is the ability to measure a construct consistently or that it has a low error rate.

Reliability indicates the stability and consistency of a measurement over time and across different scenarios.

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168
Q

Why is establishing reliability easier in physical sciences compared to psychological constructs?

A

In physical sciences, reliability can be easily established, for example, measuring height with a ruler can be verified against other scales.

In contrast, psychological constructs are more subjective and complex, making reliability harder to ensure.

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169
Q

What is Cronbach’s alpha used for?

A

Cronbach’s alpha is used to measure internal consistency, specifically how well do questions in a questionnaire correlate with one another.

A higher Cronbach’s alpha indicates better internal consistency among the items in the questionnaire.

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170
Q

What does the test-retest method evaluate?

A

The test-retest method evaluates whether a questionnaire yields a similar score at two different time points.

This method helps assess the stability of the measure over time.

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171
Q

Fill in the blank: Reliability is the ability to measure a construct _______.

A

[consistently]

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172
Q

True or False: Some level of error can be acceptable when measuring psychological constructs.

A

True

The acceptable level of error can vary depending on the context and purpose of the measurement.

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173
Q

List two methods to test reliability.

A
  • Cronbach’s alpha
  • Test-retest
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174
Q

What does validity mean in the context of a test score?

A

It measures what it says it measures

Validity is crucial for ensuring the accuracy of test scores and the inferences drawn from them.

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175
Q

According to APA, how is a test defined as valid?

A

A test is valid to the extent that inferences made from it are appropriate, meaningful and useful

This definition emphasizes the importance of the implications derived from test results.

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176
Q

What is face validity?

A

Does it look right?

Face validity refers to the superficial appearance of a test and whether it seems to measure what it claims to measure.

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177
Q

Define content validity.

A

The test corresponds to the construct (content validity index)

Content validity ensures that the test covers the relevant content area comprehensively.

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178
Q

What does criterion-related validity assess?

A

Does it work against other similar measures?

This form of validity examines how well one measure predicts an outcome based on another measure.

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179
Q

What is construct validity?

A

Does it measure what it says it will measure?

Construct validity evaluates whether a test truly measures the theoretical construct it claims to measure.

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180
Q

What does the variable X represent in the True Score formula?

A

X is the score that is observed

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181
Q

In the True Score formula, what does T represent?

A

T is the true score

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182
Q

In the True Score formula, what does E represent?

A

E is the error

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183
Q

What is the formula for calculating the observed score?

A

Observed score = true score + error

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184
Q

Fill in the blank: Observed score = _______ + error.

A

[true score]

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185
Q

What is a psychological construct?

A

A concept that represents a psychological phenomenon

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186
Q

What is the challenge in defining a psychological construct?

A

Knowing what to measure and where to start

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187
Q

True or False: The definition of psychological constructs is straightforward and does not require further investigation.

A

False

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188
Q

What are the key considerations when defining psychological constructs?

A
  • What to measure
  • Where to start
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189
Q

What is response bias?

A

When participants are biased away from truthful or accurate answers

This can significantly affect the validity of survey results.

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190
Q

What is social desirability bias?

A

Participants frequently like to present themselves favorably

This bias can lead to inaccurate responses in surveys.

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191
Q

True or False: It is acceptable to ask sexist questions in surveys.

A

False

Such questions can lead to biased responses and are unethical.

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192
Q

What is acquiescence in survey responses?

A

When people are not sure about the question and just agree to it

This can compromise the accuracy of survey results.

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193
Q

List some downfalls of survey methods.

A
  • Response Bias
  • Leading Questions
  • Social Desirability Bias
  • Acquiescence

These issues can affect the reliability and validity of survey findings.

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194
Q

What are Likert scales commonly used for?

A

Psychometric measures

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195
Q

What is a typical response format for Likert scales?

A

Disagree strongly through to agree strongly with 1-5

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196
Q

What is a major issue with Likert scales?

A

They are routinely used as a continuous variable when they are not

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197
Q

What is debated regarding the points on a Likert scale?

A

Odd or even points on a scale

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198
Q

Why is there debate over even points on a Likert scale?

A

A neutral option does not force participants to one side

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199
Q

What do most psychometricians accept regarding the number of responses in Likert scales?

A

Use of odd numbered responses (i.e. 1-5 or 1-7)

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200
Q

Fill in the blank: Likert scales are often used to measure _______.

A

[participant attitudes or opinions]

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201
Q

True or False: Likert scales are considered continuous variables by all researchers.

A

False

202
Q

What is reverse scoring in survey methods?

A

A technique used to avoid response sets by including negatively worded questions

This requires respondents to think more critically about their answers.

203
Q

Why do we use negatively worded questions in surveys?

A

To prevent respondents from answering without thinking, thereby reducing response sets

A response set occurs when respondents answer similarly across multiple questions without considering their individual meanings.

204
Q

What happens to scores when using reverse scoring?

A

A high score on a positively worded question becomes a low score, and vice versa

This transformation ensures that all questions are interpreted in the same direction.

205
Q

What must be done to scores after analysis in reverse scoring?

A

Scores need to be reversed back to maintain consistency across all questions

This step is crucial to interpret the results accurately.

206
Q

Fill in the blank: Reverse scoring is used to avoid _______ from respondents.

A

response sets

207
Q

True or False: Reverse scoring requires respondents to think less about the questions.

A

False

208
Q

What are the key qualitative approaches mentioned?

A
  • Discursive
  • Phenomenological
  • Ethnographic

These approaches are commonly employed in qualitative research to explore various dimensions of human experience and social phenomena.

209
Q

What types of analyses can be included in qualitative research?

A
  • Discourse analysis (discursive)
  • Content analysis (discursive)
  • Thematic analysis (discursive)
  • Interpretative phenomenological analysis (phenomenological)

These analyses help researchers interpret and make sense of qualitative data in different contexts.

210
Q

True or False: Only one qualitative approach can be used in research.

A

False

Multiple qualitative approaches can be utilized depending on the research question and context.

211
Q

Fill in the blank: The _______ approach is one of the key qualitative methods that focuses on the lived experiences of individuals.

A

Phenomenological

The phenomenological approach aims to understand how individuals perceive and make sense of their experiences.

212
Q

What does discourse analysis focus on?

A

The way language is used in communication

Discourse analysis examines the structure and function of language in social contexts.

213
Q

What is thematic analysis primarily concerned with?

A

Identifying and analyzing patterns or themes within qualitative data

Thematic analysis is a flexible method that can be applied across various qualitative frameworks.

214
Q

What is the main focus of discursive/discourse analysis?

A

The construction of social realities through language and visual material

This approach emphasizes the social context of discourse and its variations over time and cultures.

215
Q

How do discursive approaches differ from other analytical methods?

A

They are less interested in subjective experiences and more focused on communication patterns and societal implications

This shift highlights the importance of communication as a reflection of societal structures.

216
Q

What aspect of communication does discourse analysis particularly examine?

A

The regularities that govern how we communicate

This includes patterns, norms, and conventions in language use.

217
Q

True or False: Discourse analysis prioritizes individual subjective experiences.

A

False

The approach focuses instead on societal communication and its implications.

218
Q

Fill in the blank: Discourse analysis places importance on the _______ social context in which discourse is employed.

A

[wider]

The social context can vary across different cultures and time periods.

219
Q

What does phenomenological research involve?

A

The employment of a thick description of the subjective lived experience of the subject

Phenomenological research focuses on how individuals perceive and experience the world around them.

220
Q

What is emphasized in phenomenological research regarding the subject’s experience?

A

The embodied perception of the subject

This refers to how things look and feel to the individual experiencing them.

221
Q

What does phenomenological research endeavor to avoid?

A

Making assumptions of the data

Instead, it relies on the first-person account of the subject.

222
Q

How is meaning-making viewed in phenomenological research?

A

It is thought to be directly linked to the lived experience of one’s actions and thoughts

This perspective highlights the connection between personal experiences and the understanding of meaning.

223
Q

What does the ethnographic approach involve?

A

Immersion within one’s chosen field of study

The ethnographic approach is characterized by the researcher’s deep involvement in the environment they are studying.

224
Q

What is recorded in detail during the ethnographic approach?

A

The setting and the actions within the setting that one has become part of

Detailed recording helps in understanding the context and interactions in the field.

225
Q

Why is reflection important in the ethnographic approach?

A

It is integral to making sense of the experience one is having

Reflection allows researchers to interpret their observations and feelings about the studied environment.

226
Q

What is fundamental to the ethnographic approach?

A

Participation to the full

Full participation enhances the depth of understanding, although there are ethical and practical limits.

227
Q

True or False: Ethical and practical limits do not exist in the ethnographic approach.

A

False

Ethical and practical considerations must always be taken into account when conducting ethnographic research.

228
Q

What is the primary characteristic of the analysis across different qualitative research approaches?

A

Generally similar across the approaches, driven by a research question

This indicates that despite variations in methodology, the focus remains on addressing a specific research inquiry.

229
Q

What are the initial steps involved in qualitative data analysis?

A

Involves contextualization and then the assignment of meaningful codes in an iterative process

Contextualization helps in understanding the data within its environment.

230
Q

How are codes and themes treated in qualitative data analysis?

A

Codes and themes are then recontextualized to organize the data into patterns

This process aids in identifying overarching themes and patterns within the data.

231
Q

What are the four analytic methods used in qualitative research?

A
  • Critical Discourse Analysis
  • Thematic Analysis
  • Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis
  • Content Analysis

Each of these methods has distinct approaches to analyzing qualitative data.

232
Q

What are the two main methods researchers use to collect data?

A

Directed and non-directed methods

Directed methods include elicited approaches, while non-directed methods include non-elicited approaches.

233
Q

What is the goal of the directed method of data collection?

A

To seek subjective ‘lived’ experience in the data

This approach is often referred to as the phenomenological approach.

234
Q

What is the goal of the non-directed method of data collection?

A

To make sense of something by looking at the ways in which it is visually represented

This approach is known as the discursive approach.

235
Q

Fill in the blank: The _______ approach seeks subjective ‘lived’ experience in the data.

A

[phenomenological]

236
Q

Fill in the blank: The _______ approach seeks to make sense of something by examining visual representations.

A

[discursive]

237
Q

True or False: Elicited methods are part of non-directed data collection.

A

False

Elicited methods are part of directed data collection.

238
Q

What is the first step in research?

A

Finding out what we know about something (i.e., through searching literature)

This involves reviewing existing knowledge and studies related to the topic of interest.

239
Q

What is involved in generating new questions in research?

A

Generating new questions from previous theory (or exploring new avenues)

This can lead to innovative research directions and hypotheses that can be tested.

240
Q

What is the purpose of testing our questions in research?

A

To validate hypotheses and gather evidence to support or refute them

Testing ensures that the research findings are reliable and contribute to the body of knowledge.

241
Q

What does describing, inferring from, and communicating our findings involve?

A

It involves articulating research results clearly and accurately

Effective communication is crucial for the dissemination of research findings to both academic and non-academic audiences.

242
Q

What is the final step in the research process?

A

Generating new theories about the state-of-the-world

This step reflects the ongoing nature of research where new findings can lead to updated theories.

243
Q

Fill in the blank: The research process includes investigating, finding out what we know, generating new questions, testing questions, and _______.

A

generating new theories about the state-of-the-world

244
Q

True or False: The research process is linear and does not allow for revisiting previous steps.

A

False

The research process is often iterative, allowing researchers to revisit and refine earlier steps based on new insights.

245
Q

What is quantitative research?

A

Research that involves numbers

It is the most common approach to research in psychology.

246
Q

How does quantitative research infer evidence for a theory?

A

Through measurement of variables that produce numeric outcomes

This is based on Field, 2009.

247
Q

What research method is quantitative research linked to?

A

Falsification and the hypothetico-deductive method

248
Q

Fill in the blank: Quantitative research is linked to _______.

A

falsification and the hypothetico-deductive method

249
Q

True or False: Quantitative research primarily focuses on qualitative data.

A

False

250
Q

What is the scientific approach characterized by?

A

General rules governing behavior

The scientific approach emphasizes that behavior follows general rules and is not random.

251
Q

How can behavior be explained according to the scientific approach?

A

By causal laws

This means that behavior can be understood through established cause-and-effect relationships.

252
Q

What type of evidence is the scientific approach based on?

A

Empirical evidence

Empirical evidence is derived from observation or experimentation.

253
Q

What is a crucial aspect regarding the replication of scientific studies?

A

Replication should be possible

Replication allows for the verification of results across different studies.

254
Q

What is meant by evidence being independent of the observer?

A

Evidence should not be influenced by who is observing it

This ensures objectivity in scientific research.

255
Q

What is necessary for objective and accurate measurement in the scientific approach?

A

Standardized methods and tools

Accurate measurement is essential for reliable data collection.

256
Q

What does it mean for theories to be testable?

A

Theories should be able to be confirmed or refuted through experimentation

Testability is a fundamental criterion for scientific theories.

257
Q

What is operationalization in the context of scientific theories?

A

The process of defining theoretical constructs in measurable terms

This allows abstract concepts to be tested and observed.

258
Q

What is a common characteristic of quantitative research?

A

It tests a hypothesis/prediction

This feature distinguishes quantitative research from qualitative methods.

259
Q

In what type of environment is quantitative research often conducted?

A

Controlled environment (e.g. a psychology lab)

Controlled settings help minimize external variables affecting the results.

260
Q

What methods are commonly employed in quantitative research?

A

Experimental methods, structured questionnaires, observations

These methods help gather numerical data for analysis.

261
Q

True or False: All quantitative research must be conducted in a controlled environment.

A

False

While controlled environments are common, they are not prerequisites for quantitative research.

262
Q

Fill in the blank: Quantitative research often employs _______ methods.

A

[experimental]

Experimental methods are key in testing hypotheses.

263
Q

What is one of the primary goals of quantitative research?

A

To test a hypothesis

This goal is central to the scientific method and quantitative approaches.

264
Q

List two characteristics that are commonly found in quantitative research.

A
  • Tests a hypothesis/prediction
  • Conducted in a controlled environment

These characteristics help define the scope and methodology of quantitative studies.

265
Q

What are the two main focuses when designing quantitative studies?

A

Difference between measurements in different conditions or tasks, and relationships

This refers to evaluating how variables interact or differ under various circumstances.

266
Q

What are the three main types of design used in quantitative studies?

A
  • Correlational
  • Experimental
  • Quasi-experimental

Each design type serves a different purpose in research methodology.

267
Q

What does correlational design focus on?

A

Looking for associations between variables

An example is observing that ice cream sales increase as temperatures rise.

268
Q

What is the primary goal of experimental design?

A

To look for differences between measurements for different tasks or conditions

For instance, comparing depression scores across various treatment methods.

269
Q

What distinguishes quasi-experimental design from experimental design?

A

It involves existing groups that prevent random allocation of participants

An example includes comparing older vs. younger participants based on age as a variable.

270
Q

What is the purpose of measurement in quantitative research?

A

To measure things of interest which determine the types of statistical tests that can be performed to address hypotheses.

271
Q

What is nominal measurement?

A

A type of measurement that categorizes data without a specific order.

272
Q

What is ordinal measurement?

A

A type of measurement that categorizes data with a meaningful order but no consistent difference between categories.

273
Q

What is interval measurement?

A

A type of measurement that categorizes data with meaningful differences between values, but no true zero point.

274
Q

What is ratio measurement?

A

A type of measurement that categorizes data with meaningful differences and a true zero point.

275
Q

Fill in the blank: The four common types of measurement in quantitative research are _______.

A

Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio

276
Q

True or False: The type of measurement used in research does not affect the statistical tests that can be performed.

A

False

277
Q

What is nominal data?

A

Classification of observations into different groups

Examples include types of body gestures or types of car owned.

278
Q

Can nominal data be averaged?

A

No, it can only be counted in terms of frequency

Nominal data does not support mathematical operations like averaging.

279
Q

Provide an example of nominal data related to car ownership.

A

Types of car owned by students:
* Ford = 32
* Vauxhall = 68
* Nissan = 22
* BMW = 9

This example illustrates how nominal data can represent different categories and their frequencies.

280
Q

What is ordinal in the context of arranging values?

A

The ordering of a set of values in terms of position, without reference to absolute difference in the values.

Examples include league tables which rank items as first, second, third, etc.

281
Q

What does being second in an ordinal ranking imply?

A

Being second might be very close to being first, or it might be very far from third.

This highlights that ordinal rankings do not convey information about the exact differences between ranks.

282
Q

True or False: Ordinal rankings retain information about the exact values used to position items.

A

False

Ordinal rankings only provide positional information and do not reflect the absolute differences between the values.

283
Q

What is an interval scale?

A

A scale where numerical values have meaning, allowing for accurate judgment of differences between measurements.

This scale indicates that the differences between values are meaningful, but it lacks an absolute zero point.

284
Q

True or False: An interval scale has an absolute meaningful zero point.

A

False

An interval scale, such as temperature in Celsius, does not possess a true zero that signifies the absence of the measured quantity.

285
Q

What mathematical operations can typically be performed on interval scales?

A

Useful mathematics can be done, such as determining if one value is twice as large as another.

This is due to the precise meaning of differences between numbers on the scale.

286
Q

Fill in the blank: An interval scale allows us to judge the difference between measurements accurately, but it does not have a _______.

A

meaningful 0 point

This distinction is crucial for understanding the limitations of interval scales.

287
Q

What is a defining characteristic of a ratio scale?

A

It allows for the meaningful comparison of absolute values, including multiplication and division

Ratio scales have a true zero point, which enables statements about the ratio of measurements (e.g., Tom was 2.1 times as quick as Amir).

288
Q

How does the presence of zero in a scale affect measurement?

A

It allows for meaningful statements about the difference between observations

For example, we can state that there was zero difference between observations in terms of time.

289
Q

What types of measurement are often conflated in practice?

A

Interval and ratio types of measurement

This conflation leads to what is referred to as a continuous scale.

290
Q

Fill in the blank: In a ratio scale, we can meaningfully state that there was _______ difference between observations.

A

zero

291
Q

True or False: In a ratio scale, we can only look at the distance between observed values.

A

False

We can also multiply and divide observations to create ratios.

292
Q

What is one example of how ratio scales can be applied in practice?

A

Comparing speeds, such as stating one person is 2.1 times as quick as another

This illustrates how ratio scales enable meaningful comparisons beyond just differences.

293
Q

What are the two types of measurements discussed?

A

Continuous and discrete

294
Q

In continuous measurements, which types can be included?

A

Interval and ratio

295
Q

For discrete measurements, which types can be included?

A

Interval, ratio, ordinal, and nominal

296
Q

Fill in the blank: In continuous terms, only _______ and _______ can be included.

A

interval, ratio

297
Q

Fill in the blank: For discrete measurements, all four types can be included: interval, ratio, _______ and _______.

A

ordinal, nominal

298
Q

True or False: Continuous measurements can include nominal data.

A

False

299
Q

True or False: Discrete measurements can include all four types of measurement scales.

A

True

300
Q

What is the first step in scientific research?

A

Identification of a research question

This step is crucial for guiding the direction of the study.

301
Q

What is generated after identifying a research question?

A

A hypothesis

Hypotheses are typically predictions about the relationship between variables.

302
Q

What do hypotheses commonly predict?

A

The effect of one variable on another

This prediction is a foundational aspect of experimental research.

303
Q

What are the two main types of variables in research design?

A

Independent Variable and Dependent Variable

These variables play distinct roles in an experiment.

304
Q

What is an Independent Variable?

A

Manipulated Variable

This variable is changed to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

305
Q

What is a Dependent Variable?

A

Observed Variable

This variable is measured to see how it is affected by the independent variable.

306
Q

What is the Independent Variable (IV) in an experiment?

A

The variable that is hypothesised to have an effect on the phenomena

Also referred to as the ‘causal variable’

307
Q

How is the Independent Variable (IV) manipulated in an experiment?

A

It is varied by the researcher who measures the impact on the dependent variable

308
Q

Why is the Independent Variable considered ‘independent’?

A

The levels are controlled by the researcher and do not fluctuate due to the presence of other factors

309
Q

Fill in the blank: The Independent Variable is sometimes referred to as the _______.

A

‘causal variable’

310
Q

What is the Dependent Variable (DV)?

A

It is called the Dependent Variable as it is dependent on the Independent Variable.

The DV is what the experimenter measures during the experiment.

311
Q

What does the Dependent Variable represent in an experiment?

A

It represents the measurements recorded during the experiment.

These measurements are known as data.

312
Q

The Dependent Variable is dependent on which variable?

A

Independent Variable

Changes in the DV are a result of changes in the IV.

313
Q

Fill in the blank: The measurements obtained from the Dependent Variable are known as _______.

A

data

Data is crucial for analyzing the results of an experiment.

314
Q

What are extraneous variables in experimental design?

A

Variables that have not been manipulated by the researcher but could impact the dependent variable (DV)

These variables can confound the results of an experiment if not controlled.

315
Q

What is the primary goal when designing experiments regarding extraneous variables?

A

To limit the effects of extraneous variables

This helps ensure that the observed effects are due to the independent variable (IV) alone.

316
Q

In experimental design, what is the independent variable (IV)?

A

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable (DV)

The IV is central to testing hypotheses in experiments.

317
Q

In experimental design, what is the dependent variable (DV)?

A

The outcome variable that is measured in an experiment to assess the effect of the independent variable (IV)

Changes in the DV are expected as a result of manipulating the IV.

318
Q

What is a Confounding Variable?

A

An extraneous variable that has a consistent effect on the dependent variable (DV)

Confounding variables can impact the quality of experimental results.

319
Q

Why is it important to limit the influence of extraneous variables in experiments?

A

To enhance the quality of the results and ensure that the observed effects are due to the independent variable rather than other factors

Extraneous variables can obscure the true relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

320
Q

Fill in the blank: If an extraneous variable has a consistent effect on the DV, it is known as a _______.

A

Confounding Variable

321
Q

How can confounding variables impact research findings?

A

They can lead to incorrect conclusions about the relationship between variables

For example, not controlling for IQ when studying sex differences in digit span length may misattribute differences to sex rather than IQ.

322
Q

True or False: A confounding variable is always an extraneous variable.

A

True

323
Q

What could happen if we do not control for confounding variables in an experiment?

A

Results may be misleading or invalid

For instance, failing to control for IQ when examining sex differences could result in attributing differences to sex instead of intelligence.

324
Q

What is a fundamental feature of research design?

A

Whether we ask participants to take part in more than one condition

325
Q

What are the two main designs in research?

A
  • Between Participants
  • Within Participants
326
Q

What is a Between Participants design?

A

Where participants contribute to only one condition and we compare between different groups of people

327
Q

What is a Within Participants design?

A

Where participants contribute to more than one condition and we explore whether there is a change within that participant

328
Q

True or False: In a Within Participants design, each participant is only exposed to one condition.

A

False

329
Q

Fill in the blank: In a Between Participants design, researchers compare _______.

A

[different groups of people]

330
Q

Fill in the blank: In a Within Participants design, researchers explore whether there is a change _______.

A

[within that participant]

331
Q

What is a Between Participant Design?

A

A research design where different participants are assigned to different conditions or groups.

332
Q

What is one advantage of Between Participant Design?

A

Less chance of order effects.

333
Q

What is a disadvantage of Between Participant Design?

A

Need a larger sample size.

334
Q

In a Between Participant Design, what problem can arise with group allocation?

A

One group may have a higher IQ than the other.

335
Q

What is a benefit of using Between Participant Design in terms of participant performance?

A

Participants are more likely to perform at optimum levels.

336
Q

True or False: Between Participant Design is less likely to observe fatigue effects.

A

True.

337
Q

What is a common challenge associated with Between Participant Design?

A

Expensive and time-consuming.

338
Q

Fill in the blank: Between Participant Design is necessary for making some _______.

A

[comparisons].

339
Q

What is the implication of higher inter-participant variation in Between Participant Design?

A

It can lead to less reliable results.

340
Q

What is a Between Participant Design?

A

A research design where different participants are assigned to different conditions or groups.

341
Q

What is one advantage of Between Participant Design?

A

Less chance of order effects.

342
Q

What is a disadvantage of Between Participant Design?

A

Need a larger sample size.

343
Q

In a Between Participant Design, what problem can arise with group allocation?

A

One group may have a higher IQ than the other.

344
Q

What is a benefit of using Between Participant Design in terms of participant performance?

A

Participants are more likely to perform at optimum levels.

345
Q

True or False: Between Participant Design is less likely to observe fatigue effects.

A

True.

346
Q

What is a common challenge associated with Between Participant Design?

A

Expensive and time-consuming.

347
Q

Fill in the blank: Between Participant Design is necessary for making some _______.

A

[comparisons].

348
Q

What is the implication of higher inter-participant variation in Between Participant Design?

A

It can lead to less reliable results.

349
Q

What is a key advantage of within-participant design?

A

Controls for inter-individual differences

This design allows each participant to serve as their own control, which helps to reduce variability attributed to individual differences.

350
Q

What is a disadvantage of within-participant design?

A

Prone to order effects

Participants may improve over time simply due to repetition of tasks, which can confound results.

351
Q

What is another disadvantage of within-participant design?

A

Fatigue effects

Participants may become tired or bored if they are engaged in experiments for prolonged periods.

352
Q

Fill in the blank: Within-participant design limits the effects of _______.

A

extraneous and confounding variables

353
Q

True or False: A smaller sample size is an advantage of within-participant design.

A

True

Smaller sample sizes can be effective because each participant provides multiple data points.

354
Q

What is the primary goal of an experiment?

A

To test a prediction (hypothesis) by making measurements and establishing whether differences occur between experimental conditions.

355
Q

What is the independent variable (IV) in an experiment?

A

The factor that we manipulate to observe its effect.

356
Q

What is the dependent variable (DV) in an experiment?

A

The factor that we measure to see how it is affected by the independent variable.

357
Q

What are the types of experimental designs?

A

Within, between, or mixed designs.

358
Q

What is crucial to determine about the sample in an experiment?

A

Who our sample will be.

359
Q

What types of tests need to be conducted on the data collected in an experiment?

A

Descriptive and inferential tests.

360
Q

Fill in the blank: An experiment seeks to test a _______ by making measurements.

A

[prediction (hypothesis)]

361
Q

True or False: The dependent variable is what we manipulate in an experiment.

A

False

362
Q

What must be considered when establishing experimental conditions?

A

What we wish to compare, what we wish to measure, the design type, and the sample.

363
Q

What does descriptive testing involve?

A

Analyzing how the data are distributed.

364
Q

What does inferential testing help us understand?

A

What the data can tell us with reference to our hypothesis.

365
Q

What is the experimental hypothesis in classic experiments?

A

It predicts that there will be a difference between groups

The experimental hypothesis is often the primary hypothesis being tested in an experiment.

366
Q

What does the null hypothesis state?

A

There will be little difference (or relationship) between groups (apart from sampling error)

The null hypothesis is a default position that indicates no effect or no difference.

367
Q

What is a key requirement when interpreting experimental results?

A

Results must not be due to sampling error

Ensuring this helps to validate the findings of the experiment.

368
Q

What is a sample in the context of experiments?

A

A small portion of a larger population that is tested in an experiment

For example, testing five schizophrenics out of all who have schizophrenia.

369
Q

Why is it important to assess whether a sample represents the general population?

A

To ensure that the findings from the sample can be generalized to the larger population

This is crucial for the validity of the experiment’s conclusions.

370
Q

What is sampling error?

A

Sampling error is where our sample does not reflect the same distribution of data as that observed for the whole population.

This can lead to inaccurate conclusions about the population based on the sample data.

371
Q

What do inferential statistics assess?

A

Inferential statistics assess the likelihood (i.e. probability) of us having made a sampling error.

This involves determining the chances that a difference found in the sample is due to sampling error.

372
Q

What is the primary question addressed by inferential statistics regarding sampling error?

A

What are the chances that the difference we have found is due to sampling error if there is, in actual fact, no such difference in the general population?

This question is crucial for understanding the validity of the findings.

373
Q

What is a Type I error?

A

Finding a significant effect where one does not exist

Type I error is also known as a false positive.

374
Q

What is a Type II error?

A

Failing to find an effect where one does exist

Type II error is also known as a false negative.

375
Q

What can cause sampling errors?

A

Sampling errors can be caused by:
* Number of people studied
* How the sample is selected
* Chance

These factors can lead to incorrect conclusions in research.

376
Q

Fill in the blank: A Type I error is also known as a _______.

A

[false positive]

377
Q

Fill in the blank: A Type II error is also known as a _______.

A

[false negative]

378
Q

True or False: A Type I error occurs when we fail to find a significant effect.

A

False

A Type I error occurs when we incorrectly find a significant effect that does not exist.

379
Q

True or False: The number of people studied can influence the likelihood of sampling errors.

A

True

A larger or improperly selected sample can lead to sampling errors.

380
Q

What does it mean when something is statistically significant?

A

The probability of an observation occurring is remote enough (usually p ≤ .05)

This indicates that the result is unlikely to have occurred by chance.

381
Q

Does statistical significance prove anything?

A

No, it simply supports our experimental hypothesis

Statistical significance is about probability, not proof.

382
Q

What does statistical significance not necessarily address?

A

Psychological significance or the size of a difference or relationship

This is better addressed by looking at effect size.

383
Q

Fill in the blank: Statistical significance is usually indicated by a p-value of _______.

A

p ≤ .05

384
Q

True or False: Statistical significance and effect size are the same concepts.

A

False

Statistical significance indicates probability, while effect size measures the magnitude of a difference.

385
Q

What is the main difference between statistical significance and psychological significance?

A

Statistical significance refers to the mathematical validity of a result, while psychological significance considers the practical implications of that result.

This distinction can be illustrated through legal debates regarding medication efficacy.

386
Q

In the debate about a new medication, what is the patient’s position?

A

The patient wants access to a new medication citing that it is significantly better than the existing one for curing their disease.

This position relies on scientific publications demonstrating the medication’s effectiveness.

387
Q

What is the medical provider’s argument regarding the new medication?

A

The medical provider argues that the new medication has a small effect size, which does not warrant replacing the existing medication.

This highlights the importance of effect size in evaluating treatment options.

388
Q

Fill in the blank: Statistical significance refers to _______.

A

[the mathematical validity of a result]

389
Q

True or False: Psychological significance only considers the statistical validity of results.

A

False

390
Q

Fill in the blank: Psychological significance considers the _______ implications of a result.

A

[practical]

391
Q

What is the main difference between statistical significance and psychological significance?

A

Statistical significance refers to the mathematical validity of a result, while psychological significance considers the practical implications of that result.

This distinction can be illustrated through legal debates regarding medication efficacy.

392
Q

In the debate about a new medication, what is the patient’s position?

A

The patient wants access to a new medication citing that it is significantly better than the existing one for curing their disease.

This position relies on scientific publications demonstrating the medication’s effectiveness.

393
Q

What is the medical provider’s argument regarding the new medication?

A

The medical provider argues that the new medication has a small effect size, which does not warrant replacing the existing medication.

This highlights the importance of effect size in evaluating treatment options.

394
Q

Fill in the blank: Statistical significance refers to _______.

A

[the mathematical validity of a result]

395
Q

True or False: Psychological significance only considers the statistical validity of results.

A

False

396
Q

Fill in the blank: Psychological significance considers the _______ implications of a result.

A

[practical]

397
Q

What shape does the distribution of a population’s measurements typically form?

A

Bell shaped distribution (normal distribution)

This is also referred to as a normal curve.

398
Q

Where do common values tend to be found in a normal distribution?

A

In the center

This includes the mean of the distribution.

399
Q

What can we infer about extreme values in a normal distribution?

A

They are found in the tails

Extreme or rare values represent low probabilities of occurrence.

400
Q

What is necessary to infer about a population from a sample?

A

The sample must be normally distributed

If the sample is not normal, we cannot infer characteristics about the population.

401
Q

True or False: A 7ft adult is considered a common value in the population.

A

False

A 7ft adult is rare and has a low probability of occurring.

402
Q

Fill in the blank: Populations tend to be ______ distributed.

A

normally

This characteristic allows for statistical inferences to be made.

403
Q

What shape does the distribution of a population’s measurements typically form?

A

Bell shaped distribution (normal distribution)

This is also referred to as a normal curve.

404
Q

Where do common values tend to be found in a normal distribution?

A

In the center

This includes the mean of the distribution.

405
Q

What can we infer about extreme values in a normal distribution?

A

They are found in the tails

Extreme or rare values represent low probabilities of occurrence.

406
Q

What is necessary to infer about a population from a sample?

A

The sample must be normally distributed

If the sample is not normal, we cannot infer characteristics about the population.

407
Q

True or False: A 7ft adult is considered a common value in the population.

A

False

A 7ft adult is rare and has a low probability of occurring.

408
Q

Fill in the blank: Populations tend to be ______ distributed.

A

normally

This characteristic allows for statistical inferences to be made.

409
Q

What is a normal distribution?

A

A frequency distribution that is symmetrical with the mean, median, and mode at the center.

410
Q

What is the characteristic shape of a normal distribution?

A

A bell-shaped curve.

411
Q

In a normal distribution, where are the mean, median, and mode located?

A

At the center.

412
Q

True or False: Most measurements in the natural world conform exactly to a normal distribution.

A

False.

413
Q

What does it mean when a distribution is described as skewed?

A

It is not perfectly symmetrical and leans to one side.

414
Q

Fill in the blank: Almost anything in the natural world will conform to a distribution with a _______.

A

normal curve.

415
Q

What approach to probability does NHST use?

A

Frequentist approach

NHST stands for Null Hypothesis Significance Testing

416
Q

How does the frequentist approach represent the probability of an event?

A

It uses long-run frequency

This means analyzing outcomes over a large number of trials

417
Q

What limitation does the frequentist approach have regarding single events?

A

It cannot establish probabilities for single events

For example, it cannot predict a specific turnout for a single class

418
Q

What is an example of a probability that can be described using the frequentist approach?

A

Probability of turnout over an infinite number of classes

For instance, a 90% turnout rate calculated over many classes

419
Q

What is a key issue with using the frequentist approach in relation to human behavior?

A

It may not accurately reflect single event probabilities

Human behavior can be unpredictable and variable

420
Q

What will be the focus of the probability approach used this year?

A

The frequentist approach

Despite its limitations, it will be the primary method for analysis

421
Q

What distribution is commonly used in statistics to assess probability?

A

Standard normal distribution

The standard normal distribution is a specific type of normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.

422
Q

What is the purpose of converting the strength of relationship or the amount of difference between groups?

A

To obtain a standardized value

This standardized value allows for comparison across different datasets and helps assess statistical significance.

423
Q

How can we assess the likelihood of obtaining a value under the null hypothesis?

A

By using the standardized value

This involves calculating probabilities based on the standard normal distribution.

424
Q

Fill in the blank: In statistics, we use the _______ distribution to assess the probability of finding a particular result.

A

standard normal

The standard normal distribution is central to many statistical analyses.

425
Q

True or False: The null hypothesis is assumed to be true when assessing the likelihood of obtaining a statistical value.

A

True

The null hypothesis typically states that there is no effect or no difference, serving as a baseline for comparison.

426
Q

What is the mean of any normally distributed set of numbers?

A

The mean will always be in the centre

427
Q

What is true about extreme scores in a normal distribution?

A

Extreme scores are much less likely than scores near the mean

428
Q

What standardized measures help assess probabilities in a normal distribution?

A

Standard deviations and z-scores

429
Q

What can we assess using the area under the curve in a normal distribution?

A

The probability of finding a specific value

430
Q

True or False: In a normal distribution, scores near the mean are more common than extreme scores.

A

True

431
Q

Fill in the blank: The _______ of any normally distributed set of numbers will always be in the centre.

A

mean

432
Q

Fill in the blank: We can assess the probability of finding a value in a normal distribution using _______ measures.

A

standardized

433
Q

What is a directional prediction in hypothesis development?

A

A prediction that specifies the expected outcome in a particular direction, such as one group outperforming another.

Example: Group A will outperform Group B.

434
Q

What is a one-tailed prediction?

A

A prediction that is directional, indicating the expected outcome will occur in a specific direction.

435
Q

What is a two-tailed prediction?

A

A prediction that can result in outcomes in either direction, indicating a non-directional hypothesis.

436
Q

In hypothesis testing, what does a one-tailed prediction imply?

A

It implies that there is an expectation of a specific direction of difference between groups.

437
Q

In hypothesis testing, what does a two-tailed prediction imply?

A

It implies that there is an expectation of a difference but does not specify the direction.

438
Q

What is the impact of making a one-tailed prediction on assessing experimental significance?

A

It affects how we look at and assess the probability of an experimental effect being significant.

439
Q

In a one-tailed prediction, where do we look to determine significance?

A

Under the normal curve, specifically in the last 5% of the tail (the rejected region).

440
Q

How does a two-tailed prediction differ from a one-tailed prediction?

A

In a two-tailed prediction, we don’t know which tail the value may fall under, so we assess significance in the last 2.5% of either tail.

441
Q

Fill in the blank: For a one-tailed prediction, we assess if our value falls within the last _______ of the tail.

A

5%

442
Q

Fill in the blank: For a two-tailed prediction, we assess if our value falls in the last _______ of either tail.

A

2.5%

443
Q

True or False: A one-tailed prediction allows for the assessment of significance in both tails of the distribution.

A

False

444
Q

What is the ‘rejected region’ in the context of one-tailed predictions?

A

The last 5% of the tail under the normal curve.

445
Q

What is the effect of making a one-tailed prediction on assessing experimental effects?

A

It affects how we look at and assess the probability of an experimental effect being significant

446
Q

In a one-tailed prediction, where do we look to determine significance?

A

Under the normal curve in the last 5% of the tail (the rejected region)

447
Q

In a two-tailed prediction, how do we assess where our value may fall?

A

We are only confident if our value falls in the last 2.5% of either tail

448
Q

True or False: A one-tailed prediction allows for greater flexibility in determining significance.

A

False

449
Q

Fill in the blank: For a one-tailed prediction, the significant region is in the last ______ of the tail.

A

5%

450
Q

Fill in the blank: In a two-tailed prediction, we check the last ______ of either tail for significance.

A

2.5%

451
Q

What are non-parametric tests?

A

Tests that do not assume a normal distribution of data

Examples include chi-square tests.

452
Q

What are parametric tests?

A

Tests that assume a normal distribution of data

Examples include t-tests.

453
Q

What is the implication if data do not form a normal distribution?

A

We cannot infer from our sample to the population

This limits the applicability of statistical conclusions.

454
Q

What is the implication if data form a normal distribution?

A

We can infer from our sample to the population

This allows for broader conclusions based on sample data.

455
Q

Fill in the blank: If our data do not or cannot form a normal distribution, they are referred to as _______.

A

non-parametric tests

456
Q

Fill in the blank: If our data do form a normal distribution, they are referred to as _______.

A

parametric tests

457
Q

True or False: Non-parametric tests can be used for categorical data.

A

True

458
Q

True or False: Parametric tests are also known as distribution-free tests.

A

False

459
Q

What does a probability value indicate in terms of effect size?

A

It does not tell us how large our observed effect is.

Probability values indicate statistical significance but not the magnitude of the effect.

460
Q

True or False: A small probability value always indicates a large effect size.

A

False.

A small p-value can occur with a small effect size, especially in large samples.

461
Q

Why is understanding effect size important?

A

It gives us a better interpretation of our results.

Effect size helps to understand the practical significance of findings.

462
Q

Fill in the blank: Understanding what size of effect we have gives us a better _______ of our results.

A

interpretation.

Interpretation involves assessing the implications of the statistical findings.

463
Q

What can lead to a small p-value even with a small effect size?

A

A small sample size.

A small sample can produce misleading p-values in the context of effect size.

464
Q

What might a small p-value indicate in relation to a strong relationship?

A

It could indicate a very large difference.

The relationship between sample size, p-values, and effect size can be complex.

465
Q

What are the considerations when designing research studies?

A

The researcher needs to be mindful of:
* Difficulty of the task
* Ordering of tasks
* Naivety of the participant
* Intention of the participant
* Type of data to be collected

These aspects are essential for ensuring valid and reliable research outcomes.

466
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Features of a study that influence participants’ behavior based on their perceptions of the study’s purpose.

Demand characteristics can lead to biased results if participants alter their behavior to fit perceived expectations.

467
Q

Define order effects in research design.

A

Order effects refer to how the sequence of tasks can affect participants’ responses.

For example, performing a difficult task first may affect performance on subsequent tasks.

468
Q

What are difficulty effects in research studies?

A

Difficulty effects include floor and ceiling effects that impact the range of data collected.

A floor effect occurs when a task is too difficult, leading to low scores, while a ceiling effect happens when a task is too easy, resulting in high scores.

469
Q

Fill in the blank: The type of data one will collect is a key consideration when _______.

A

[designing a study]

470
Q

What is a floor effect?

A

A situation where everyone performs very poorly, or near the minimum value

Floor effects can obscure the true variability in data.

471
Q

What is a ceiling effect?

A

A situation where everyone performs very well, or near the maximum value

Ceiling effects can also obscure the true variability in data.

472
Q

What is necessary when creating a task to test a prediction or hypothesis?

A

There needs to be variability in the data

Variability is essential to distinguish how participants perform under different tasks or conditions.

473
Q

What problems arise when one cannot distinguish performance based on participants or conditions?

A

It can lead to difficulties in interpreting the data

This lack of distinction can undermine the validity of the study.

474
Q

Fill in the blank: A _______ effect occurs when everyone does very poorly.

A

floor

475
Q

Fill in the blank: A _______ effect occurs when everyone does very well.

A

ceiling

476
Q

True or False: Floor and ceiling effects can both obscure true variability in data.

A

True

477
Q

What are demand effects in research studies?

A

Demand effects refer to how a participant’s performance can be influenced by various factors, affecting the researcher’s data interpretation.

478
Q

What is the Hawthorne Effect?

A

The Hawthorne Effect is when participants alter their behavior because they are aware they are being observed.

479
Q

What can participants do if they guess the researcher’s goal?

A

Participants can behave in accordance with the guessed goal, deviating from their normal behavior.

480
Q

What is the Clever Hans Effect?

A

The Clever Hans Effect occurs when experimenters unintentionally influence participants to produce desired outcomes.

481
Q

Fill in the blank: Participants typically want to do well and may behave according to their guesses about the researcher’s _______.

A

[goal]

482
Q

True or False: Demand effects are only caused by the participant’s knowledge of being observed.

A

False

483
Q

What can experimenters introduce to influence participant behavior?

A

Bias

484
Q

How can the performance of a participant in a study be problematic?

A

It can depend on a range of issues that influence their performance, complicating data interpretation.

485
Q

List two effects that can influence participant behavior in research.

A
  • Hawthorne Effect
  • Clever Hans Effect
486
Q

What is social desirability in research?

A

The tendency of participants to respond in a manner that aligns with social norms rather than their true feelings.

This often affects answers to questions about socially undesirable behaviors, such as not recycling.

487
Q

Why is it important to consider social desirability when designing a questionnaire?

A

Participant responses may not reflect their true feelings due to the influence of social norms.

This can lead to biased data that does not accurately represent the participants’ actual behaviors or opinions.

488
Q

Fill in the blank: Responses to questions about socially undesirable behaviors may be influenced by _______.

A

[social norms]

489
Q

True or False: Social desirability bias can lead to more honest responses in questionnaires.

A

False

Social desirability bias typically results in less honest responses as participants may want to conform to perceived societal expectations.

490
Q

What is acquiescence bias?

A

Also known as ‘agreement bias’, it is a situation where a participant answers questions with agreement or disagreement that does not reflect their true feelings or opinions.

Acquiescence bias can significantly impact the validity of research findings.

491
Q

What factors can cause acquiescence bias?

A

Factors include:
* Participant motivation
* The set of options available
* Uniform phrasing of questions

Understanding these factors helps in designing better questionnaires.

492
Q

What do established questionnaires consider to obtain true responses?

A

They consider:
* How questions are phrased
* Providing information regarding confidentiality
* Types of response options available

These considerations are crucial for minimizing biases in survey responses.

493
Q

What is a longitudinal design?

A

A design where we study a behaviour or subject of interest over a longer period of time, making measurements at regular intervals.

This allows researchers to see how things change over time within the same group of participants.

494
Q

What is the main advantage of a longitudinal design?

A

It allows observation of changes over time within the same group of participants.

This is particularly useful for studying interventions aimed at changing behaviours.

495
Q

What is a cross-sectional design?

A

A design that saves time by studying different groups at a single point in time.

This introduces between-group variation due to individual differences.

496
Q

True or False: Longitudinal designs can show how behaviours change over time.

A

True

497
Q

Fill in the blank: A longitudinal design usually involves making measurements at _______.

A

regular intervals

498
Q

What is a key drawback of cross-sectional designs?

A

It introduces between-group variation due to individual differences.

This can affect the reliability of the results as the groups may differ significantly.

499
Q

What type of design is used to study the same group of participants over time?

A

Longitudinal design

500
Q

What does a longitudinal design allow researchers to do?

A

See how things change over time within the same group of participants.

This can reveal trends and patterns that cross-sectional studies may miss.

Psychology (5 decks)

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