Psychology (3) Flashcards
What is the main goal when conducting an experiment?
To determine the effect of the independent variable (IV) on the dependent variable (DV)
This involves controlling the environment and manipulating the IV while measuring the DV.
What does controlling the world in an experiment entail?
Controlling the world involves manipulating the IV(s) and measuring the DV
This is essential for establishing a cause-and-effect relationship.
What is the relationship between IV and DV?
The independent variable (IV) is manipulated to observe its effect on the dependent variable (DV)
Understanding this relationship is crucial for determining causation.
What is a potential drawback of focusing too much on causation in experiments?
It can lead to tunnel vision
This means researchers may overlook other important factors or variables.
Fill in the blank: The search for the _______ can result from an overemphasis on causation.
magic bullet
This term refers to a singular solution or factor that resolves a complex issue.
What is reductionism?
The idea that everything can be reduced to its simplest form.
This concept implies that complex phenomena can be understood by examining their basic components.
In reductionism, how are behaviors viewed?
Behaviors are simply the sum of their parts.
This means that behaviors can be analyzed by breaking them down into simpler elements.
How does reductionism apply to physics?
Everything is made of particles, and can be explained via particle interactions.
This perspective focuses on the fundamental building blocks of matter.
How does reductionism apply to psychology?
A behavior can be reduced to its simplest cause.
This suggests that complex behaviors can be traced back to basic psychological triggers.
What is a good example of reductionism in psychology?
Behaviorism.
Behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors and their relationship to stimuli and responses.
In the context of behaviorism, what are the two main components?
Stimulus and Response.
This framework emphasizes the relationship between external stimuli and the behavioral responses they elicit.
What is the perspective of biological psychology?
Biological psychology could be considered reductionist
This perspective suggests that behaviors can be explained solely in terms of biology.
What fundamental premise does biological psychology rely on?
We are biological organisms
This premise underlines the belief that biological factors play a crucial role in influencing behavior.
How can all behaviors be explained according to biological psychology?
In terms of our biology
This means that psychological phenomena are linked to biological processes.
What is an example used to illustrate a biological process in psychology?
Reflex arch
A reflex arc demonstrates how biological responses occur without conscious thought.
What happens when a hot stimulus is contacted according to biological psychology?
Receptors feel the threat
This initiates a series of biological responses that lead to movement.
What is the sequence of events after contacting a hot stimulus?
- Nerve impulse to CNS
- Nerve impulse back from CNS
- Movement
This sequence illustrates the biological basis of reflex actions.
True or False: All of psychology can be reduced to biology.
False
While biological psychology emphasizes biology, not all psychological phenomena can be fully explained by biological factors.
What does Burwood et al. (1999) suggest about reductionism?
All behaviours need to be explainable by the lowest property
This implies that higher properties do not play a role in understanding behaviour.
What does the concept of reductionism imply about higher properties?
Higher properties don’t play a role
This perspective limits the understanding of complex behaviours.
What is an example of a feeling that raises questions about reductionism?
Feeling conscious
This suggests a conflict between biological determinism and the experience of consciousness.
What assumption do we make about consciousness in relation to decision-making?
We feel conscious and free to make decisions
This assumption challenges the reductionist perspective.
If biology is the only cause of behaviour, what question arises about consciousness?
Are we really conscious?
This question highlights the tension between biological determinism and subjective experience.
What term describes consciousness as a by-product of biological processes?
Epiphenomena
This concept suggests that consciousness may not have a causal role in behaviour.
Can the concept of consciousness be fully explained by biology?
This remains a contentious question
The relationship between biology and consciousness is complex and debated.
What does absolute reductionism seem inappropriate for?
Psychology
Absolute reductionism fails to account for the complexity of psychological phenomena.
What is a better approach than absolute reductionism in psychology?
Explanatory Pluralism
Explanatory Pluralism allows for multiple levels of description and understanding.
What do different levels of description in psychology include?
- Physiological
- Psychological
These levels can co-evolve and influence each other.
How do higher-level explanations in psychology typically explore behavior?
In terms of function
Higher-level explanations focus on the purpose or role of behaviors.
Can higher-level explanations in psychology be reduced to lower-level explanations?
No
Higher-level explanations exist in their own right and cannot be simplified to lower-level terms.
What is the effect of multiple variables in research?
Multiple variables can have an effect in their own right and can also affect each other
This concept allows for a more complex understanding of interactions in research settings.
What is known as an interaction in research?
An interaction occurs when variables affect each other
Interactions can lead to outcomes that are more complex than the sum of individual variable effects.
Why are interactions often more interesting in research?
Interactions are often more interesting than the effect of a single dependent variable (DV)
This is because they reveal how different variables work together to influence outcomes.
What is the significance of small effects in research?
Small effects can have important real-world implications.
True or False: A single independent variable with a small effect is irrelevant.
False
If a single independent variable can reduce violent crime by 1%, what should we consider?
It is worthwhile to consider the impact.
How much of an improvement in grade would be considered satisfactory?
5%
Fill in the blank: Small effects can make ______ differences.
big
What should not be ignored in research despite the size of the effect?
The importance of a single variable.
Why is control important in psychology?
Control is important because it helps in the understanding and explanation of behavior
Control allows researchers to isolate variables and determine causal relationships.
What happens when control is increased in psychological studies?
Increasing control leads to a focus that can ignore the bigger picture
This can result in an oversimplified understanding of complex behaviors.
What is a potential consequence of searching for a single variable to explain behavior?
It can lead to a reductionist approach
A reductionist approach simplifies complex phenomena, often missing important interactions.
What can considering variables in isolation lead to?
It can lead to missing important interactions
Interactions among variables can provide deeper insights into behaviors.
What is the relationship between control in experiments and ecological validity?
Increased control can lead to less ecological validity
Ecological validity refers to the extent to which findings can be generalized to real-world settings.
Why might psychology be criticized as artificial?
Because greater control in experiments can reduce ecological validity
Critics argue that controlled experiments do not accurately reflect real-life situations.
Fill in the blank: Increasing control in psychological studies can lead to the search for a _______ to explain behavior.
single variable
True or False: A reductionist approach is beneficial for understanding complex behaviors.
False
A reductionist approach often oversimplifies and misses the complexity of behaviors.
What common complaint is often directed at Psychology?
Studies are not ‘real life’
This observation highlights the gap between controlled lab studies and real-world scenarios.
Why is the observation that Psychology studies are not ‘real life’ considered fair?
Lab studies do not replicate real-world occurrences
In controlled environments, behaviors may be influenced differently than in natural settings.
How do people typically behave in interviews compared to real life?
People rarely discuss personal ideas or experiences with strangers
This contrasts with the openness often encouraged in interview settings.
Is the lack of ‘real world’ application a problem in Psychology?
Yes, it raises questions about the ecological validity of findings
Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research findings can be generalized to real-world settings.
What is the artificial nature of psychology described as?
Not an accident or negligent practice
It is a method to understand complex real-world phenomena.
What is the goal of using an artificial approach in psychology?
To determine what is happening in an extremely complex world
This approach helps simplify and analyze complicated human behaviors.
Why might real-world observations not produce accurate data?
Because they can be influenced by the awareness of being observed
This phenomenon is often referred to as the observer effect.
How does awareness of being filmed affect behavior?
It can alter how individuals behave
People may act differently when they know they are being watched.
Fill in the blank: The artificial nature of psychology is a way to try and determine what is actually _______.
happening
True or False: Real-world observations always produce accurate data.
False
Real-world observations can be affected by various factors, including awareness of observation.
What is the Hawthorne Effect?
The observer effect where individuals modify behaviour when they know they are being observed
It emphasizes the influence of observation on performance.
Who conducted experiments related to the Hawthorne Effect?
Landsberger in 1958
These experiments were conducted at the Hawthorne works.
What was the focus of Landsberger’s experiments?
The productivity of workers under different levels of light
The experiments sought to understand how environmental factors impact worker productivity.
What was the outcome of the productivity experiments conducted by Landsberger?
Productivity increased when research started, then decreased after it ended
This indicated that the act of being studied influenced the workers’ performance.
Fill in the blank: The Hawthorne Effect is also known as the _______.
observer effect
This term highlights the impact of observation on behaviour.
True or False: The Hawthorne Effect suggests that observation can lead to changes in individual behavior.
True
This effect illustrates how awareness of being observed can alter performance.
What is often questioned when people question repressiveness?
The sample, not the design.
List the issues related to sampling mentioned.
- Random sampling
- The Undergraduate student problem
- Applied vs Basic Research
True or False: The listed issues are unrelated to each other.
False
Fill in the blank: The issues of sampling include random sampling, the ________, and applied vs basic research.
Undergraduate student problem
What is the relationship between the issues of random sampling, the undergraduate student problem, and applied vs basic research?
These issues are inter-related.
What is random sampling?
Random sampling relates to how people are chosen. Each member of the population has the same chance of being chosen to participate.
Examples include tests like questionnaires and opinion polls.
Does psychology often employ true random sampling?
No, psychology doesn’t often employ true random sampling.
This suggests that psychological studies may not fully represent real-life scenarios.
What is a common issue in psychological sampling?
The Undergraduate Problem.
This issue arises from the reliance on convenience samples in psychological research.
What is the primary sampling method used in psychology?
Convenience sample.
Convenience samples are drawn from readily available subjects rather than through random selection.
Are animals used in testing randomly sampled?
No, animals used in testing are not randomly sampled.
This practice limits the generalizability of findings in animal research.
Do vaccine test subjects volunteer or are they randomly selected?
Vaccine test subjects volunteer.
This can introduce selection bias into vaccine trials.
What is a key limitation of sampling methods in various scientific fields?
They often do not use true random sampling.
This limitation is common in psychology, chemistry, and animal testing.
Fill in the blank: The sampling method commonly drawn on in psychology is a _______.
convenience sample.
True or False: Chemists pull out random samples of chemicals.
False.
Chemists also tend to use non-random sampling methods.
What is the Undergraduate Problem in psychological research?
The idea that psychological research relies too heavily on undergraduate students as participants
Also known as the College Sophomore problem.
Who argued that the reliance on undergraduate students as participants has serious implications?
Sears (1986)
Sears highlighted the consequences of a narrow data base in psychological studies.
What did Peterson’s (2001) meta-analysis reveal about students as research participants?
Students are a more homogenous group than non-students
Peterson’s meta-analysis included over 100,000 participants.
True or False: The Undergraduate Problem suggests that college students provide a diverse sample for psychological studies.
False
The problem highlights the lack of diversity in using only undergraduate students.
Fill in the blank: The Undergraduate Problem is also known as the _______.
College Sophomore problem
What are the serious implications of relying on a narrow data base in psychological studies?
Potentially skewed conclusions and lack of generalizability
This can affect the validity of psychological research findings.
What type of studies does the Undergraduate Problem primarily concern?
Lab-based studies
These studies often use undergraduate students as participants.
Do UG students invalidate findings?
No, they encourage further testing if you wish to generalise.
What is a common belief about demographic variation in psychological processes?
A lot of psychological processes are quite basic, so it is widely believed that demographic variation is not the driving factor.
Does colour blindness relate to IQ?
No, colour blindness doesn’t relate to IQ.
How representative are university students in the UK now compared to 50 years ago?
University students are more representative now than they were 50 years ago.
What percentage of people went to university in the UK in 1960?
~4% of people went to university.
What percentage of people go to university in the UK in 2022?
~37% of people go to university.
What can significantly affect research findings according to Peterson (2001)?
The study sample
Peterson (2001) emphasizes the importance of the study sample in research outcomes.
In research, why is it important to target the correct population?
To ensure relevant and applicable findings
Testing a different population can lead to irrelevant results.
True or False: The study sample is less important in theoretical research compared to applied research.
False
The study sample is crucial for both applied and theoretical research.
Fill in the blank: If your study targets a particular population, there is no point in testing _______.
UG’s who are a different population
UG refers to a specific group relevant to the research.
What type of research is directly affected by the choice of study sample?
Applied research
Applied research aims to address real-world problems and requires relevant samples.
What is the significance of basic research in applied contexts?
Basic research provides a foundation that can be applied to various fields
Basic research helps in understanding baseline processes that can be utilized in practical applications.
Give an example of visual search being applied in a practical setting.
Airport security or medical imaging
Visual search techniques are used to enhance the effectiveness of security checks and diagnostic imaging.
How has attention research been applied in real-world scenarios?
Driving with phones
Research on attention helps understand the risks associated with distracted driving.
What theory has been applied to the Northern Ireland conflict?
Social Identity Theory
This theory examines how group identities can influence conflicts and social dynamics.
What is an example of classic conditioning applied in everyday life?
Potty training
Classic conditioning principles are often used in behavioral training methods.
What does UG stand for in the context of applying research?
Universal Grammar
UG can be used to test base theories before applying them to specific target populations.
What does the artificiality argument originate from?
A misunderstanding of the scientific method
The argument suggests that scientific findings are often viewed as artificial due to the methods used.
Why should psychologists be concerned about experimental conclusions?
Because they may rely on a single methodology or population
This concern highlights the importance of diverse methodologies in psychological research.
What do researchers often comment on in their published works?
Issues or limitations in their studies
Acknowledging limitations helps improve the robustness of scientific findings.
Are psychologists unaware of the artificiality criticism?
No, they are aware of it
Awareness of criticism is crucial for the integrity of the field.
Is the artificiality criticism important for psychologists?
Yes, it needs to be considered
Understanding this criticism can lead to more thoughtful research practices.
Fill in the blank: The artificiality criticism should be kept in _______.
Perspective
Maintaining perspective helps balance criticisms with the benefits of research.
How do experiments in psychology typically compare to real life?
Experiments in psychology (and the other sciences) are commonly not like real life
This highlights the artificiality of controlled conditions in research settings.
What needs to be considered when evaluating the aim of research?
The aim of research needs to be considered
This emphasizes the importance of understanding the purpose behind the research.
What is an important issue in applied research?
Invalid environments/conditions can affect conclusions
This indicates that the context of applied research must be relevant to the real-world scenarios it seeks to address.
How should controlled conditions be viewed in basic research?
Controlled conditions should be viewed as a strength, not a limitation
This suggests that the rigor of controlled conditions enhances the validity of findings in basic research.
What is the primary aim of the course?
To provide students with an understanding of the psychology of personality and individual differences (PID) and social psychology theories
This includes real-world applications and theoretical comparisons.
What will students examine regarding PID and social psychology theories?
The strengths and weaknesses of PID and social psychology theories in explaining real-world issues.
How many lectures are there per week and what is their structure?
2 x 1hr lectures per week: 1hr Social Psychology and 1hr Personality and Individual Differences.
What common issue will be explored in the course?
Racial Discrimination.
Who are the tutors for the course?
- Dr Eve Binks - Social Psychology
- Dr Julienne McGeough - Personality and Individual Differences.
What type of assessment will be conducted in June?
Seen assessment.
Fill in the blank: The course will allow for a comparison on individual (Personality) and group-level (social) explanations for _______.
[behaviour].
What is Social Psychology?
The scientific investigation of how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others
(Allport, 1935)
Who stated that sociability is the key to how the human mind functions?
Sloman & Fernbach, 2017
This emphasizes the importance of social interaction in understanding mental processes.
What do social psychologists study?
Social psychologists study:
* Behaviour
* Feelings
* Thoughts
* Attitudes
* Beliefs
* Intentions
* Goals
These elements help in understanding human interactions and influences.
What is the difference between observable and unobservable processes in social psychology?
Observable processes can be seen directly, while unobservable processes:
* Can be inferred from behaviour
* Occur in the brain
* Influence/govern behaviour
Unobservable processes are crucial for understanding underlying motivations.
True or False: Unobservable processes in social psychology are not relevant to behaviour.
False
Unobservable processes significantly influence and govern behaviour.
Fill in the blank: Unobservable processes can be inferred from _______.
[behaviour]
This inference is key in social psychological research.
What is an example of an unobservable process in social psychology?
The relationship between attitudes and behaviour.
Understanding this relationship helps in predicting how attitudes can influence actions.
What role do beliefs play in social psychology?
Beliefs are one of the core components that social psychologists study, influencing behaviour and interactions.
Beliefs shape how individuals perceive situations and respond to them.
What are intentions in the context of social psychology?
Intentions refer to a person’s plan or aim to act in a certain way, influencing their behaviour.
Intentions are crucial for understanding decision-making processes.
What do goals represent in social psychology?
Goals represent the desired outcomes that individuals aim to achieve, guiding their behaviour.
Goals can be short-term or long-term and significantly affect motivation.
What does social psychology focus on?
How people are affected by others who are physically present, imagined, or implied.
Who conducted an early social psychology laboratory experiment?
Triplett in 1898.
What are the key components of social psychology?
- Language & communication
- Social interaction
- Thought processes
What is a key aspect of social psychology’s scientific nature?
Use of the scientific method.
What concepts are important in social psychology?
- Dissonance
- Attitude
- Categorisation
- Identity
True or False: Common sense assumptions are always reliable in social psychology.
False.
What is the danger of common sense assumptions in social psychology?
No theory is true simply because it makes sense.
How are theories in social psychology constructed?
From data and previous theories, tested empirically.
Fill in the blank: Social psychology investigates how individuals are affected by _______.
[others]
What is Behaviourism?
A theory in psychology that derives from Pavlov’s conditioned reflexes and Skinner’s operant conditioning
Behaviourism emphasizes the role of environmental factors in shaping behavior.
What do theories in Social Psychology emphasize?
Situational factors and reinforcement/learning in social behaviour
These theories explore how context influences interactions and relationships.
What is the reinforcement-effect model of interpersonal attraction?
A model suggesting we like those with whom we associate positive experiences
Developed by Lott in 1961, it highlights the importance of positive reinforcement in social relationships.
What does social modelling refer to?
Behaviour shaped by vicarious learning through observing reinforcement given to others
This concept was explored by Bandura in 1977.
What is drive theory in social psychology?
A theory that examines audience impact on task performance, leading to improvement or deterioration
This theory was proposed by Zaionc in 1965.
What does cognitive psychology explain?
It explains behaviour in terms of the way people actively reinterpret and represent experiences and plan actions
How is social psychology characterized in its perspective?
Social psychology is very cognitive in its perspective
What is Field Theory and who proposed it?
Field Theory is a concept by Kurt Lewin (1951) that examines how cognitive representations of the social environment provide motivation for behaviour
What do Attribution Theories focus on?
They focus on how we explain behaviour and the consequences of causal explanations
What is Social Cognition according to Fiske & Taylor (1991)?
Social Cognition is a metatheory focusing on how cognitive processes and cognitive representations are constructed and influence behaviour
Fill in the blank: Social psychology is very _______ in its perspective.
[cognitive]
True or False: Field Theory was proposed in 1951.
True
Who are some key theorists associated with Attribution Theories?
Hewstone (1989)
What does the term ‘cognitive representations’ refer to in social psychology?
It refers to how individuals perceive and interpret their social environment
What is Evolutionary Social Psychology?
A more recent development drawing on Darwinian theory and sociobiology.
What do many behavioral tendencies in social psychology stem from?
The ancestral past of our species.
Who proposed the fighting instinct in humans?
Lorenz (1966).
What is the fighting instinct linked to?
Survival.
What does prosocial behavior refer to?
A biological predisposition to respond to suffering with aid.
Who linked prosocial behavior to genetic survival?
Barash (1977).
What is the role of nonverbal communication according to Patterson (1983)?
To establish control, dominance, intimacy, or communicate feelings and intentions.
Fill in the blank: Many behavioural tendencies stem from the _______ past of our species.
ancestral
True or False: Humans have an inherited aggressive instinct linked to survival.
True
Fill in the blank: Prosocial behaviour is linked to _______ survival.
genetic
What is the main focus of personality psychology in social psychology?
Use of personality attributes to explain behaviour
Examples include charismatic personality, prejudiced personality, and conformist personalities.
How is personality viewed in social psychology?
Accepted as a partial explanation at best
This perspective arises from the lack of evidence for stable personality traits.
What evidence challenges the concept of stable personality traits?
We behave in different ways at different times in different contexts
Behaviour is influenced by situation and context.
If personality is defined as behavioural consistency across contexts, what must be explained?
Why do some people resist social and contextual influences on behaviour?
This highlights the complexity of personality in varying situations.
True or False: Personality traits are always stable across different contexts.
False
Evidence suggests that behaviour varies with context.
Fill in the blank: Personality psychology uses attributes such as _______ to explain behaviour.
[charismatic personality]
Other examples include prejudiced personality and conformist personalities.
What is the Interpersonal level of explanation in social psychology?
Analysis of social processes related to an individual’s organisation of their experiences of the social environment (e.g. cognitive balance research)
Cognitive balance research examines how individuals strive for harmony in their thoughts and relationships.
What does the Interpersonal & Situational level of explanation focus on?
Inter-individual interactions in specific situations without considering social positional factors. Study of the dynamics of relations at a given moment by given individuals in a given situation (e.g. attribution research)
Attribution research investigates how individuals explain events and the behaviors of others.
How does the Positional level of explanation differ from the Interpersonal & Situational level?
It considers inter-individual interactions in specific situations while accounting for positional factors outside of the situation (e.g. social identity research)
Social identity research looks at how group membership affects individual behaviors and attitudes.
What is the Ideological level of explanation in social psychology?
Inter-individual interaction that considers the role of general social beliefs and social relations between groups (e.g. cultural norms and values)
Cultural norms and values shape the behaviors and expectations of individuals within societies.
What are individual differences?
Variations among people in characteristics, abilities, and behaviour
Includes personality, intelligence, motivation, and emotionality.
Define personality.
A combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual’s distinctive character
Key features include consistency, individuality, and influence on behaviour.
What key features define personality?
- Consistency
- Individuality
- Influence on behaviour
These features help to understand how personality affects actions and interactions.
What is differential psychology?
A central concern to philosophers and psychologists, focusing on individual differences
Differential psychology integrates methodology, affective and cognitive science, genetics, and biology.
What has been the focus of differential psychology for millennia?
The study of individual differences
This focus remains relevant in both applied and theoretical psychology.
What disciplines does the proper study of individual differences integrate?
- Methodology
- Affective science
- Cognitive science
- Genetics
- Biology
This integration highlights the interdisciplinary nature of differential psychology.
What does the field of differential psychology have?
A long history and an exciting future
This suggests ongoing relevance and potential for future research.
Who reviewed major questions in differential psychology?
Revelle, Wilt, Condon in 2010
Their work includes suggestions for future directions in the field.
True or False: Differential psychology is only relevant for theoretical applications.
False
It is relevant for both applied and theoretical psychology.
Fill in the blank: Differential psychology integrates methodology, affective and cognitive science, _______ and biology.
genetics
This highlights the biological aspect of individual differences.
What were the early thinkers about people trying to do?
To apply understanding of people to tasks
They aimed to understand how people differ and how differences may develop.
What is a key aim of Differential Psychology today?
To understand how people differ
This is similar to the aims of early thinkers in psychology.
What is necessary to understand individual differences?
Develop a reliable and valid method for measuring differences
The approach will vary based on the understanding of why people differ.
How may the method for measuring differences differ?
Depending on your understanding of why people differ
This indicates that theoretical perspectives influence measurement approaches.
What are common behaviours in understanding human behaviour?
A set number of traits help us understand human behaviour
This includes theories from Allport, Cattell, Eysenck, and the Big Five.
What biological factors drive behaviour?
Genes, brains, biochemistry, evolution
These biological components are crucial in understanding the mechanisms behind behaviour.
Who are the key theorists associated with psychodynamic behaviour?
Freud
Freud’s theories focus on underlying mechanisms of behaviour.
What does humanistic psychology emphasize in terms of behaviour?
Growth and self-development
Key figures include Maslow and Rogers, who emphasize the need for personal growth.
What is the role of the situation in shaping human behaviour?
The situation plays a crucial role in shaping human behaviour
Socio-cognitive models, such as those proposed by Bandura and Mischel, explore this aspect.
Fill in the blank: Theories by Allport, Cattell, and Eysenck are examples of _______ theories.
[trait]
These theories focus on identifying and categorizing traits that define human behaviours.
True or False: Humanistic psychology is primarily concerned with biological factors influencing behaviour.
False
Humanistic psychology focuses on personal growth rather than biological influences.
Which theorists are associated with socio-cognitive models?
Bandura, Mischel
These theorists examine how social situations and cognitive processes influence behaviour.
What are common behaviours in understanding human behaviour?
A set number of traits help us understand human behaviour
This includes theories from Allport, Cattell, Eysenck, and the Big Five.
What biological factors drive behaviour?
Genes, brains, biochemistry, evolution
These biological components are crucial in understanding the mechanisms behind behaviour.
Who are the key theorists associated with psychodynamic behaviour?
Freud
Freud’s theories focus on underlying mechanisms of behaviour.
What does humanistic psychology emphasize in terms of behaviour?
Growth and self-development
Key figures include Maslow and Rogers, who emphasize the need for personal growth.
What is the role of the situation in shaping human behaviour?
The situation plays a crucial role in shaping human behaviour
Socio-cognitive models, such as those proposed by Bandura and Mischel, explore this aspect.
Fill in the blank: Theories by Allport, Cattell, and Eysenck are examples of _______ theories.
[trait]
These theories focus on identifying and categorizing traits that define human behaviours.
True or False: Humanistic psychology is primarily concerned with biological factors influencing behaviour.
False
Humanistic psychology focuses on personal growth rather than biological influences.
Which theorists are associated with socio-cognitive models?
Bandura, Mischel
These theorists examine how social situations and cognitive processes influence behaviour.
What is the focus of structural models in individual differences?
The nature of individual differences.
What are some factors that contribute to individual differences?
- Traits
- Experiences
- Cognitive aptitude
What is a typical question regarding individual differences in academic achievement?
How do people differ in their academic achievement? Is this difference due to their personality or a learned experience?
What do process models in individual differences investigate?
The causes of differences in people.
What questions do process models seek to answer?
- What are the causes of differences?
- Why do some people have higher levels of outgoing natures and others less?
What are the two main approaches to studying individual differences?
Idiographic and nomothetic
What does the idiographic approach focus on?
The individual and describes the variables (personality, characteristics) within that individual
What research method is often used in the idiographic approach?
Single case studies
Who famously used the idiographic method in their research?
Freud
What type of methods does idiographic research often employ?
Qualitative methods
What can some idiographic researchers do based on their case studies?
Make generalisations about human nature
What is the assumption behind norms in the nomothetic approach?
There is a finite set of variables
What does the nomothetic approach study?
Large groups of people to identify common variables
In the context of variables, how do people fit within the nomothetic approach?
People will fit somewhere along a variable
What is an example of a variable that might be studied?
Outgoing behaviours
According to Carver and Scheier (2000), what does the nomothetic approach allow for?
Uniqueness
What contributes to uniqueness in the nomothetic approach?
A combination of the known and accepted common traits
What is the Trait Approach in personality assessment?
Uses self-report questionnaires (e.g., NEO-PI, Big Five Inventory) and factor analysis to identify stable traits.
What methods does the Psychodynamic Approach employ?
Employs case studies, dream analysis, and projective tests (e.g., Rorschach Inkblot Test, TAT) to explore unconscious processes.
What qualitative methods are used in the Humanistic Approach?
Uses qualitative methods such as interviews and self-assessment exercises to explore self-concept and personal growth.
What type of studies does the Social-Cognitive Approach conduct?
Conducts observational studies, experiments (e.g., Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment), and self-efficacy assessments.
What techniques are utilized in the Biological Approach?
Utilises twin studies, neuroimaging (e.g., MRI, EEG), and genetic analyses to explore the biological basis of personality.
What does the Situational Approach study?
Studies behavioural responses in different social and cultural contexts using experiments, surveys, and cross-cultural comparisons.
Fill in the blank: The Trait Approach uses _______ to identify stable traits.
[self-report questionnaires]
True or False: The Psychodynamic Approach primarily uses quantitative methods.
False
What is the role of observational studies in the Social-Cognitive Approach?
To study behaviors in social contexts and assess self-efficacy.
Fill in the blank: The Biological Approach uses _______ to explore the biological basis of personality.
[twin studies, neuroimaging, genetic analyses]
What does Differential Psychology explore?
How people differ from each other
This includes various domains such as cognitive, personality, biological, and social learning differences.
What are the two main research perspectives in Differential Psychology?
Idiographic and nomothetic approaches
Idiographic focuses on individual uniqueness, while nomothetic seeks to establish norms across populations.
What does the nomothetic approach aim to establish?
Norms and finite characteristics that are common across people
This approach typically involves statistical methods to analyze differences.
What is behavior a combination of, according to Differential Psychology?
A number of different variables explained by different theoretical approaches
These approaches may include biological, cognitive, and social theories.
What will be examined in the core topic for the lecture series?
Different theoretical approaches and their application to individual and group theory
This examination will provide insights into how these theories relate to individual differences.
Fill in the blank: Differential Psychology includes research on cognitive differences, personality differences, biological differences, and _______.
social learning and experiences differences
These areas contribute to understanding the complexities of human behavior.
