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Psychology (2) Flashcards

1
Q

What is cognitive neuroscience?

A

The relationship between cognitive functions and the brain.

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2
Q

What do studies in cognitive neuroscience investigate?

A

The mind, inferred from measures of behaviour in relation to brain activity.

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3
Q

What has led to the explanation of neural mechanisms in cognitive neuroscience?

A

The growth and use of technology.

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4
Q

What does cognitive neuroscience explore in relation to brain regions?

A

Connectivity between brain regions and their role in cognitive function.

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5
Q

What is Electroencephalography (EEG)?

A

Measurement of the brain’s electrical activity via electrodes placed on the scalp.

EEG is often used in clinical settings to diagnose conditions like epilepsy and sleep disorders.

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6
Q

What does Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) measure?

A

Measurement of brain activity by detecting small changes in the brain’s blood flow and oxygenation levels.

fMRI is commonly used in research to understand brain function and to map brain activity during various tasks.

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7
Q

What is the purpose of Positron Emission Tomography (PET)?

A

Visual imaging technique that allows the detection of brain activity via the use of radioactive tracers that are injected into the body.

PET scans are used to observe metabolic processes in the body and can help in the diagnosis of conditions like cancer and neurological disorders.

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8
Q

How does Magnetoencephalography (MEG) work?

A

Measurement of the brain’s activity by detecting changes in its magnetic fields.

MEG is particularly useful for localizing brain functions and understanding the timing of neural events.

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9
Q

What is the focus of evolutionary psychology?

A

Identify the selection pressures that have impacted on human psyche over time

Evolutionary psychology seeks to understand how evolution has shaped our mental processes.

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10
Q

What does evolutionary psychology test regarding psychological mechanisms?

A

Whether they show features expected if designed to solve particular adaptive problems

This involves examining if our mental processes are suited to the challenges faced by our ancestors.

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11
Q

Who is Steven Pinker?

A

A psychologist and author known for his work in evolutionary psychology.

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12
Q

What are two notable books published by Steven Pinker?

A
  • The Language Instinct (1994)
  • The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature (2002)
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13
Q

What psychological perspective does Steven Pinker advocate?

A

Evolutionary psychology.

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14
Q

According to Pinker and Bloom (1990), what is language?

A

A product of evolution and not a by-product.

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15
Q

What does Steven Pinker believe about language faculties?

A

They are innate.

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16
Q

What view is associated with Steven Pinker’s beliefs?

A

Nativist view.

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17
Q

True or False: Steven Pinker is considered a controversial figure in Psychology.

A

True.

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18
Q

What are Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS)?

A

Studies that scan markers across complete sets of DNA to investigate genetic variations associated with a disease or trait.

GWAS are instrumental in understanding the genetic basis of various diseases and traits.

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19
Q

What major projects enabled the development of Genome Wide Association Studies?

A

The Human Genome Project and the HapMap Project.

The Human Genome Project was completed in 2003, and the HapMap Project was completed in 2005.

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20
Q

Approximately how many genes exist in human beings?

A

Approximately 20,500 genes.

This mapping of genes is crucial for understanding genetic variation.

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21
Q

What types of diseases are commonly investigated using Genome Wide Association Studies?

A

Diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and mental illness.

GWAS help identify genetic variations that may contribute to these diseases.

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22
Q

True or False: Genome Wide Association Studies only focus on physical diseases.

A

False.

GWAS also investigate psychological traits, such as personality traits.

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23
Q

Fill in the blank: The Human Genome Project was completed in _______.

A

2003

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24
Q

Fill in the blank: The HapMap Project was completed in _______.

A

2005

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25
What is one application of Genome Wide Association Studies in psychology?
Investigation of psychological traits such as personality traits. ## Footnote This shows the relevance of genetic studies in understanding human behavior.
26
What are the limitations of Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS)?
Huge costs associated with running these studies, large sample sizes needed, GWAS does not establish causal genetic variation ## Footnote GWAS studies are often expensive and require significant resources to analyze large datasets.
27
Fill in the blank: GWAS does not establish _______ genetic variation.
causal ## Footnote Causal genetic variation refers to specific genetic changes that directly contribute to a trait or disease.
28
True or False: GWAS can be conducted with small sample sizes.
False ## Footnote Large sample sizes are necessary to achieve statistically significant results in GWAS.
29
What is a major financial consideration when conducting GWAS?
Huge costs associated with running these studies ## Footnote The financial burden can limit the number of studies that can be successfully conducted.
30
What is required in terms of sample size for GWAS?
Large sample sizes needed ## Footnote Larger samples help improve the reliability and validity of the findings.
31
What are the two main types of cells in our nervous system?
Neurons and Glia Cells ## Footnote Neurons communicate with each other, while Glia Cells support neuronal function.
32
What is the primary function of neurons?
To communicate with each other to perform information processing tasks.
33
What do Glia Cells provide to neurons?
Physical support, nutrients, and enhanced function.
34
Who developed a stain that allowed the visualization of neurons in the brain?
Golgi (1843-1926).
35
What did Cajal (1852-1934) contribute to the understanding of neurons?
He showed that neurons come in different shapes and sizes.
36
True or False: Neurons actually touch each other.
False.
37
Fill in the blank: Glia Cells are also known as _______.
[Glue].
38
What are neurons?
Electrically excitable cells which can communicate with other cells.
39
What are the three basic parts of a neuron?
* Cell Body * Axon * Dendrites
40
What part of the neuron receives signals from other neurons?
Dendrites
41
What is the function of the axon in a neuron?
Transmits neural impulses away from the cell body.
42
What is the myelin sheath?
A protective covering that surrounds the axon and helps speed up neural impulses.
43
Fill in the blank: The _______ is the part of the neuron that contains the nucleus.
Cell Body
44
True or False: Neurons can communicate with each other.
True
45
What structure at the end of the axon helps in communication with other neurons?
Terminal branches of axon
46
What is a neural impulse?
An electrical signal that travels along the axon.
47
What are the two stages of communication of information within and between neurons?
Conduction and Transmission
48
What does conduction refer to in the context of neuron function?
Conducting information along a neuron
49
What does transmission refer to in the context of neuron function?
Passing information between neurons
50
What is the natural electric charge of neurons called?
Resting Potential
51
What is the value of the resting potential in millivolts?
-70 millivolts
52
Who conducted research on resting potential in 1939?
Hodgkin & Huxley
53
What is the resting potential generated by?
A differing concentration of ions inside and outside the cell
54
Fill in the blank: The difference in charge between the inside and outside of the cell membrane is called _______.
Resting Potential
55
True or False: Resting potential is a stable state that occurs only when a neuron is actively firing.
False
56
What phenomenon is produced when a neuron is stimulated?
Action Potential ## Footnote This phenomenon was noted by Hodgkin & Huxley in 1939.
57
What must be reached for an action potential to occur?
Threshold ## Footnote If the threshold is not reached, no action potential is produced.
58
What is the range of voltage change during an action potential?
-70 to +40 millivolts ## Footnote This indicates the depolarization of the neuron during the action potential.
59
True or False: An action potential occurs regardless of whether the threshold is reached.
False ## Footnote Action potentials only occur when the stimulation reaches a specific threshold.
60
What happens to the neuron's charge during an action potential?
It jumps from -70 to +40 millivolts ## Footnote This change represents the rapid depolarization phase of the action potential.
61
What is an action potential?
An action potential occurs when there is a change in charge in the cell.
62
What happens to the Na+ channels during an action potential?
Na+ channels open, allowing Na+ to flood into the cell, increasing the charge.
63
What occurs when the peak of an action potential is reached?
The K+ channels open, letting K+ leave the cell until resting potential is restored.
64
What is the refractory period?
The refractory period is the time during which the cell cannot fire again as Na+ and K+ pumps reset the cell.
65
Fill in the blank: Axons cell membranes are _______.
permeable.
66
What is myelination?
The process of covering the axon in a Myelin sheath
67
What is a Myelin sheath composed of?
A layer of fatty cells made up of glia cells
68
What is the primary function of the Myelin sheath?
Insulation and faster transmission of signals
69
How does myelination affect signal loss?
It reduces signal loss
70
What are demyelinating diseases?
Diseases that slow transmission along axons, such as Multiple Sclerosis
71
True or False: Myelination allows for slower transmission of signals along neurons.
False
72
What is the role of Nodes of Ranvier?
Facilitate quicker movement of signals between nodes
73
Fill in the blank: The process of covering the axon in a _______ is known as myelination.
Myelin sheath
74
What happens to transmission speed in demyelinating diseases?
It slows down
75
List two key benefits of myelination.
* Faster transmission * Reduced signal loss
76
Who discovered that neurons do not actually touch each other?
Cajal
77
What is the small gap between the sending neuron and receiving neuron called?
Synapse
78
What must happen for neurons to communicate?
Information must travel across the synapse
79
Fill in the blank: Between the sending neuron and receiving neuron, there is a _______.
synapse
80
True or False: Neurons physically touch each other.
False
81
What is the first step in synaptic transmission?
Action potential arrives at terminal button
82
What happens after the action potential arrives at the terminal button?
Stimulate release of neurotransmitters into the synapse from the presynaptic neuron
83
What do neurotransmitters do after being released into the synapse?
Cross the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic dendrite
84
What is generated if neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites and reach the threshold?
An action potential is generated
85
Fill in the blank: Neurotransmitters are released from the _______ neuron.
presynaptic
86
Fill in the blank: The gap between the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic neuron is called the _______.
synaptic gap
87
What are the structures that contain neurotransmitters in the presynaptic neuron called?
Vesicles
88
What is the term for the process of neurotransmitters being taken back into the presynaptic neuron?
Reuptake
89
What receptors are located on the presynaptic neuron that help regulate neurotransmitter release?
Autoreceptors
90
True or False: Postsynaptic neurons are responsible for generating action potentials.
True
91
What can neurons form thousands of?
Synaptic connections
92
What characterizes the pathways formed by neurons?
Specific neurotransmitters
93
What hypothesis explains how neurotransmitters fit into receptor sites?
Lock and Key hypothesis
94
Fill in the blank: After transmission, excess neurotransmitter leaves the synapse by _______.
[Reuptake, Enzyme Deactivation, Binding to auto receptors]
95
What are the three ways excess neurotransmitter can leave the synapse?
* Reuptake * Enzyme Deactivation * Binding to auto receptors
96
What do auto receptors do in the context of neurotransmitter transmission?
Moderate the amount of transmitter in the synapse
97
What are neurons often specialized based on?
Their location
98
What is a characteristic of Purkinje cells?
Dense network of dendrites
99
What is the shape of hippocampal pyramidal cells?
Triangular body and long dendrites
100
What distinguishes bipolar cells?
Few dendrites and a single axon
101
What functions are associated with Purkinje cells?
Coordination, control, and learning movements
102
What is the role of hippocampal pyramidal cells?
Generation of cognitive maps
103
What signals do bipolar cells convey?
Light driven signals from rods and cones to retinal ganglion cells
104
Fill in the blank: Purkinje cells are associated with _______.
coordination, control, and learning movements
105
True or False: All neurons have the same structure.
False
106
What type of neurons are characterized by a triangular body?
Hippocampal pyramidal cells
107
What are the two broad types of the nervous system?
Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System
108
What does the Central Nervous System consist of?
The brain and spinal cord
109
What is the function of the Peripheral Nervous System?
Connects the CNS to the body's organs and muscles
110
True or False: Neurons can communicate with each other.
True
111
Fill in the blank: The _______ Nervous System consists of the brain and spinal cord.
Central
112
Fill in the blank: The _______ Nervous System connects the CNS to the body's organs and muscles.
Peripheral
113
What are the two subdivisions of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?
Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System ## Footnote The PNS is responsible for transmitting information in and out of the Central Nervous System (CNS).
114
What is the function of the Somatic Nervous System?
Transmits information in and out of the CNS and allows conscious control over behaviors ## Footnote It helps us perceive and coordinate behaviors.
115
What does the Autonomic Nervous System control?
Involuntary commands controlling bodily functions such as blood vessels, organs, and glands ## Footnote It operates without conscious control.
116
What are the two branches of the Autonomic Nervous System?
Sympathetic Nervous System and Parasympathetic Nervous System ## Footnote These branches manage different involuntary functions.
117
True or False: The Somatic Nervous System is responsible for involuntary bodily functions.
False ## Footnote The Somatic Nervous System is under conscious control.
118
Fill in the blank: The _______ Nervous System makes your blood vessels dilate and controls digestion.
Sympathetic ## Footnote This system is part of the Autonomic Nervous System.
119
What type of control do we have over the Autonomic Nervous System?
No conscious control ## Footnote It operates automatically to manage bodily functions.
120
What does the sympathetic nervous system prepare the body for?
Action ## Footnote It activates the body's fight or flight response.
121
What physiological changes occur when the sympathetic nervous system is activated?
• Dilates pupils • Increases heart rate • Diverts blood to brain and muscles ## Footnote These changes enhance physical performance and alertness.
122
What does the sympathetic nervous system inhibit?
• Digestion • Responses to pain and injury ## Footnote This inhibition allows the body to focus on immediate survival.
123
True or False: The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body to fight or run.
True ## Footnote This is part of the fight or flight response.
124
Fill in the blank: The sympathetic nervous system ______ the pupils.
dilates ## Footnote This allows more light to enter the eyes, enhancing vision.
125
What happens to heart rate when the sympathetic nervous system is activated?
Increases ## Footnote This helps pump more blood and oxygen to muscles.
126
What is a common scenario that activates the sympathetic nervous system?
Hearing footsteps while walking in the dark ## Footnote This triggers a fear response, activating the sympathetic nervous system.
127
What is the role of the Parasympathetic Nervous System?
It returns the body to a normal resting state.
128
How does the Parasympathetic Nervous System typically respond to the actions of the Sympathetic Nervous System?
It usually mirrors the Sympathetic Nervous System.
129
What happens to heart rate when the Parasympathetic Nervous System is activated?
It reduces the heart rate.
130
What effect does the Parasympathetic Nervous System have on pupil size?
It constricts the pupils.
131
Fill in the blank: The Parasympathetic Nervous System undoes what the _______ did.
Sympathetic Nervous System
132
True or False: The Parasympathetic Nervous System is responsible for the body's fight-or-flight response.
False
133
What are the two main parts of the Central Nervous System?
Brain and Spinal Cord
134
What is the primary responsibility of the Central Nervous System?
Most of what we do
135
Before considering the CNS, what must we understand?
How anatomy is labelled
136
What is the anatomical direction that refers to the back of the body?
Dorsal ## Footnote Dorsal is commonly used to describe the position of structures in relation to the back of the organism.
137
Which anatomical direction refers to the front of the body?
Anterior ## Footnote Anterior is often used interchangeably with ventral in humans.
138
What term describes the direction towards the tail end of the body?
Posterior ## Footnote Posterior is the opposite of anterior.
139
What is the term for the direction towards the belly or underside?
Ventral ## Footnote Ventral is used primarily in animals, while in humans, it is synonymous with anterior.
140
Fill in the blank: The term for the direction towards the midline of the body is _______.
Medial ## Footnote Medial is the opposite of lateral.
141
What anatomical direction refers to the sides of the body, away from the midline?
Lateral ## Footnote Lateral indicates a position farther from the midline of the body.
142
What is the horizontal plane in relation to the brain?
A slice which is paralleled to the ground ## Footnote This plane is useful for viewing the brain from a top-down perspective.
143
What does the frontal (coronal) plane resemble?
Like slicing a loaf of bread ## Footnote This plane allows for viewing the brain from the front to the back.
144
What does the sagittal plane do?
Runs along the length of the brain, separating the left and right sides ## Footnote A midsagittal cut divides the brain into two equal halves.
145
What is a midsagittal section?
A section that separates the left and right sides of the brain ## Footnote It provides a symmetrical view of the brain structures.
146
What is often considered the brains poor relation?
Spinal Cord
147
What functions does the spinal cord enable the brain to perform?
Breathing, movement, interaction with our world
148
What is the role of the spinal cord in behavior?
Can create some behaviours
149
What is a reflex arch?
Simply muscle movement to protect
150
What is required for more complex behaviours?
Interaction between the brain and spinal cord
151
What does the spinal cord serve as for the nervous system?
A highway for the nervous system signals
152
Fill in the blank: The spinal cord can create _______.
[some behaviours]
153
True or False: The spinal cord is not involved in reflex actions.
False
154
What is the approximate weight of the brain?
1.3 kg
155
How long is the brain?
15 cm
156
How many connections are there in the brain?
Over 170 billion
157
How many Facebook users are there on the planet for perspective?
3.1 billion
158
What are the three planes through which neuroscientists can consider the brain?
* Ventral to dorsal * Left to right * Anterior to posterior
159
Which approach will be considered in this lecture regarding the brain?
Ventral to dorsal approach
160
True or False: Simpler functions occur at higher levels of the brain.
False
161
Fill in the blank: Generally, simpler functions occur at _______ levels and more complex at higher.
lower
162
What is the hindbrain also known as?
Brainstem
163
What is the primary function of the hindbrain?
Coordinates information coming in and out of the spinal cord
164
List the four main structures of the hindbrain.
* Medulla * Pons * Reticular Formation * Cerebellum
165
True or False: The hindbrain consists of only one structure.
False
166
Fill in the blank: The _______ is one of the four main structures of the hindbrain.
[any of the following: Medulla, Pons, Reticular Formation, Cerebellum]
167
What are the main components of the hindbrain?
Pons, Medulla, Reticular formation, Cerebellum ## Footnote The hindbrain is responsible for various vital functions and motor control.
168
What is the function of the reticular formation?
Regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of arousal ## Footnote Severing the reticular formation in a cat caused an irreversible coma (Moruzzi & Magoun, 1949).
169
What does the medulla coordinate?
Heart rate, circulation, and respiration ## Footnote The medulla is crucial for autonomic functions.
170
What role does the cerebellum play in motor control?
Controls fine motor skills and smooths actions ## Footnote This is important for coordination and balance (Smetacek, 2002).
171
What does the term 'pons' mean in Latin?
'Bridge' ## Footnote The pons relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain.
172
True or False: The reticular formation is involved in regulating sleep.
True ## Footnote It also regulates wakefulness and arousal levels.
173
Fill in the blank: The __________ coordinates heart rate, circulation, and respiration.
Medulla ## Footnote The medulla is a vital part of the hindbrain.
174
What happens if the reticular formation is severed?
Causes an irreversible coma ## Footnote This was demonstrated in a study by Moruzzi & Magoun in 1949.
175
What is the primary function of the pons?
Relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain ## Footnote This makes it essential for communication within the brain.
176
Name one key function of the cerebellum.
Controls fine motor skills ## Footnote It is essential for coordination and balance, smoothing movements.
177
What is the function of the tectum?
Orientates us to the environment ## Footnote The tectum is responsible for reflexive responses to sensory stimuli, such as turning towards a loud noise.
178
When you hear a loud noise and look towards it, which part of the brain is involved?
Tectum
179
What role does the tegmentum play in the brain?
Involved in movement and arousal ## Footnote The tegmentum helps in orienting us to sensory information and is linked to pleasure-seeking behaviors.
180
Fill in the blank: The _______ is associated with pleasure seeking and motivation.
Tegmentum
181
True or False: The tectum is involved in movement.
False
182
What are the two main parts of the midbrain mentioned?
* Tectum * Tegmentum
183
What is the highest level of the brain called?
Forebrain ## Footnote The forebrain is linked to complex cognition, emotion, sensation, and motor functions.
184
What are the two main components of the forebrain?
* Cerebral Cortex * Subcortical Structures ## Footnote The cerebral cortex is visible and has two distinct hemispheres, while subcortical structures are located beneath the cerebral cortex.
185
True or False: The cerebral cortex is not visible with the eye.
False ## Footnote The cerebral cortex is visible and has two distinct hemispheres.
186
Fill in the blank: The forebrain is linked to ________, emotion, sensation, and motor functions.
[complex cognition]
187
What does the term 'subcortical structures' refer to in the context of the forebrain?
Structures housed under the cerebral cortex near the centre of the brain ## Footnote These structures play various roles in processing information and regulating emotions.
188
What is the longitudinal fissure?
A large trench that separates the two hemispheres of the brain ## Footnote The longitudinal fissure divides the left and right hemispheres of the brain.
189
What are the two distinct hemispheres of the cerebellum?
Left and right hemispheres ## Footnote The cerebellum is responsible for coordination and balance.
190
What is contralateral processing?
The phenomenon where the right side of the body is controlled by the left side of the brain and vice versa ## Footnote This principle is fundamental in understanding brain function and motor control.
191
What connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain?
Corpus callosum ## Footnote The corpus callosum is a thick band of nerve fibers that facilitates communication between the two hemispheres.
192
What are the folds and grooves on the surface of the brain called?
Folds are gyri (singular: gyrus) and grooves are sulci (singular: sulcus) ## Footnote Gyri and sulci increase the surface area of the brain and are involved in various brain functions.
193
What are the four lobes of the brain?
* Frontal Lobe * Parietal Lobe * Temporal Lobe * Occipital Lobe ## Footnote Each lobe has distinct functions related to different aspects of cognition and sensory processing.
194
Fill in the blank: The cerebellum has a series of _______ and _______.
[folds], [grooves] ## Footnote These structures help in increasing the surface area of the cerebellum.
195
True or False: The precentral gyrus is part of the frontal lobe.
True ## Footnote The precentral gyrus is involved in motor control.
196
What is the role of the central sulcus?
It separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe ## Footnote The central sulcus is a key landmark in the brain's anatomy.
197
What are the main functions of the Frontal Lobe?
Complex thinking, planning, judgments, and movement
198
What are the main functions of the Parietal Lobe?
Processing sensations from the body, locating objects, and attentional processing
199
What are the main functions of the Temporal Lobe?
Hearing, language, identifying patterns, and memory
200
What is the main function of the Occipital Lobe?
Processing of visual input
201
Fill in the blank: The _______ Lobe is responsible for complex thinking and planning.
Frontal
202
True or False: The Temporal Lobe is involved in processing visual input.
False
203
Fill in the blank: The _______ Lobe processes sensations from the body.
Parietal
204
What is the 'what/how pathway' associated with?
Temporal Lobe
205
Which lobe is primarily responsible for emotional processing?
Frontal Lobe
206
Which lobe is associated with interacting with objects and touch?
Parietal Lobe
207
Which lobe is responsible for processing vision?
Occipital Lobe
208
What has advanced alongside technology in studying the brain?
Tools available to study the brain
209
What does Electroencephalography (EEG) measure?
Electrically activity in neurons
210
What is a limitation of EEG?
Limited spatial resolution
211
What does Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) allow us to see?
The structure of the brain
212
What was a significant limitation before MRI technology?
We couldn't see damage until post mortem
213
What does functional MRI (fMRI) allow us to observe?
Which parts of the brain are using oxygen
214
What is a disadvantage of functional MRI?
Slow
215
What is an advantage of functional MRI?
Good spatial resolution
216
What does positron emission tomography (PET) measure?
Blood flow in the body/brain using radioactive markers ## Footnote PET is a functional imaging technique that helps visualize metabolic processes.
217
What is the purpose of Transmagnetic Cranial Stimulation (TMS)?
To temporally 'turn off' parts of the brain using a magnet ## Footnote TMS can create temporary lesions and is primarily used to explore surface structures of the brain.
218
True or False: TMS can permanently damage brain structures.
False ## Footnote TMS creates temporary effects rather than permanent damage.
219
Fill in the blank: Positron emission tomography uses _______ to measure blood flow.
[radioactive markers]
220
What types of structures can TMS primarily explore?
Surface structures of the brain ## Footnote TMS is limited in its ability to investigate deeper brain structures.
221
What does the term 'nomothetic' refer to?
An approach that focuses on general laws and generalizations about human behavior ## Footnote Derived from the Greek 'nomos', meaning 'law'.
222
What is the subject matter of individual differences in the nomothetic approach?
The ways in which we are like some other human beings
223
How many ways do people differ from each other according to the nomothetic approach?
Only a small number of ways, sometimes referred to as group norms
224
What are measurement tools used for in the nomothetic approach?
To compare people with each other
225
What type of tests are commonly used in the nomothetic approach?
Psychometric tests
226
What are psychometric tests interested in measuring?
Constructs (latent variables) which cannot be directly observed ## Footnote Examples include personality characteristics, intelligence, and mental health.
227
What is a common output of psychometric tests?
A numeric value for the item that is measured.
228
What are the two distinct backgrounds of psychometric tests?
* Measurement of individual differences * Measurement of constructs/standardised testing
229
How long does it typically take to develop psychometric tests?
A long time; you can't just knock out a couple of questions and say you're done.
230
What are psychometric tests concerned with?
* Validity * Reliability
231
True or False: Psychometric tests can be created quickly with minimal effort.
False
232
Fill in the blank: Psychometric tests measure constructs that are _______.
[latent variables]
233
What is the statistical method used to analyze the results of psychometric tests?
Factor analysis ## Footnote Factor analysis helps in identifying basic factors or dimensions underlying constructs such as personality and intelligence.
234
What does factor analysis help researchers determine?
Which items are related ## Footnote This allows researchers to refine their measures.
235
Name a theory related to intelligence that used factor analysis.
Spearman's two-factor theory of intelligence ## Footnote Developed in 1904 and further elaborated in 1927.
236
Which psychologist proposed theories of personality that involved factor analysis?
Eysenck ## Footnote Eysenck's theories were developed in 1953 and 1965.
237
What is one of the contributions of Cattell to the field of personality?
Theories of personality ## Footnote Cattell's contributions were made in 1965.
238
Fill in the blank: The results of psychometric tests are analyzed using _______.
factor analysis
239
True or False: Factor analysis can be used to identify dimensions underlying constructs such as intelligence and personality.
True
240
What does the term 'idiographic' refer to in psychology?
The study of individual norms and uniqueness in individuals ## Footnote Derived from the Greek 'idios', meaning 'own' or 'private'.
241
Who is the main advocate for the idiographic approach?
Gordon Allport ## Footnote Allport's work in 1937 and 1961 is foundational for this approach.
242
What type of theories represent the idiographic approach?
Humanistic personality theories ## Footnote Examples include Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and Kelly's personal construct theory.
243
Fill in the blank: The idiographic approach focuses on ways in which individuals are _______.
unique
244
True or False: The idiographic approach studies general norms applicable to all individuals.
False ## Footnote The idiographic approach emphasizes individual differences rather than general norms.
245
What are the three types of personal traits distinguished by Allport?
Cardinal, Central, Secondary ## Footnote Allport classified these traits to explain individual behavior and personality.
246
What are Cardinal traits?
Traits that dictate and direct almost all of an individual's behaviour ## Footnote Cardinal traits are the dominant traits that shape a person's actions and decisions.
247
What are Central traits?
Basic building blocks that make up the core of a person's personality ## Footnote Central traits indicate how a person deals with the world and are fundamental to their character.
248
What are Secondary traits?
Refers to tastes and preferences that may change and don't define an individual ## Footnote Secondary traits are less influential and can vary over time.
249
True or False: Cardinal traits are the least influential on an individual's behavior.
False ## Footnote Cardinal traits are the most influential, shaping nearly all behavior.
250
Fill in the blank: Secondary traits refer to _______ and preferences that may change.
[tastes] ## Footnote Secondary traits are not stable and can fluctuate based on circumstances.
251
What does it mean for traits to be idiosyncratic?
Traits are individual and unique to each person ## Footnote Idiosyncratic traits highlight personal differences in behavior and personality.
252
What determines whether a trait is considered secondary or central?
It is determined by how often and strongly it influences a person's behaviour ## Footnote For example, a person may be generally irritable but occasionally kind.
253
Can some traits be possessed by only one person?
Yes, individuals can possess traits that are unique to them ## Footnote This emphasizes the uniqueness of each individual.
254
Does having the same label for a trait guarantee that it is demonstrated in the same way by different individuals?
No, the same trait can be demonstrated in different ways by different individuals ## Footnote Subtle shadings can distinguish how the trait manifests in each person.
255
Fill in the blank: What makes a trait _______ or central is not what it is but how often and strongly it influences a person's behaviour.
[secondary]
256
True or False: Two people with the same trait will always show that trait in the same manner.
False ## Footnote Individuals may express the same trait differently.
257
What does the idiographic approach contend about individuals?
People are not comparable ## Footnote This approach emphasizes the uniqueness of each individual.
258
According to the idiographic approach, how are differences between people characterized?
Qualitative differences (a difference in kind) ## Footnote This suggests that individuals cannot simply be compared using the same metrics.
259
What did Allport suggest regarding the comparison of individuals?
Individuals can be compared but only as a rough approximation ## Footnote This indicates limitations in comparing unique traits across individuals.
260
What does Holt suggest is necessary for describing an individual trait?
Creation of a new word ## Footnote This highlights the complexity and uniqueness of individual traits.
261
What is the focus of the nomothetic approach?
Comparing people in terms of a specified number of traits or dimensions ## Footnote This approach seeks to establish general laws that apply to many individuals.
262
How do traits function in the nomothetic approach?
Traits have the same psychological meaning for everyone ## Footnote Individuals differ in the extent to which the trait is present.
263
What type of difference does the nomothetic approach emphasize?
Quantitative difference (one of degree only) ## Footnote This approach measures traits on a continuum rather than categorically.
264
What do single case designs analyze?
The actual performance of an individual ## Footnote Single case designs focus on the detailed examination of a single subject's behavior or performance.
265
What is a key characteristic of case studies?
They compare an individual's performance across different conditions ## Footnote This comparison helps to identify patterns and effects of varying conditions on performance.
266
Why is individual variability important in case studies?
It allows for understanding unique responses to different conditions ## Footnote Recognizing individual variability is crucial for tailoring interventions and understanding diverse outcomes.
267
What is the clinical significance of single case designs?
They provide insights that can inform treatment decisions and interventions ## Footnote The findings from single case designs can be directly applicable in clinical settings.
268
What is a case study?
A detailed description and analysis of a single individual ## Footnote Case studies focus on in-depth exploration of an individual or group.
269
What types of data are obtained in a case study?
* Naturalistic observation * Diaries * Interviews * Psychometric tests * Experimental measurements ## Footnote These methods provide various perspectives and insights into the individual being studied.
270
True or False: A case study may describe the application and results of a particular treatment.
True ## Footnote Case studies often include treatment interventions and their outcomes.
271
Fill in the blank: A case study obtains data through _______.
[multiple methods] ## Footnote This includes naturalistic observation, diaries, interviews, psychometric tests, and experimental measurements.
272
What is one strength of case studies?
Provide new ideas and hypotheses ## Footnote Case studies often lead to innovative thinking and exploration of new concepts.
273
How do case studies contribute to discoveries?
Open the way for discoveries based on other methodologies ## Footnote They can lead to insights that inform or enhance other research methods.
274
What opportunity do case studies provide researchers?
Opportunity to develop new techniques ## Footnote Case studies can inspire novel approaches to research and problem-solving.
275
Give an example of a case study that illustrates a unique phenomenon.
The wild boy of Aveyrone ## Footnote This case involved a boy who lived in the woods, walked on all fours, and had very little language.
276
What is a key strength of case studies?
Provide the chance to study very rare phenomena ## Footnote Case studies allow for in-depth exploration of unique or infrequent occurrences that may not be observable in larger studies.
277
What type of occurrences can only be examined through intensive study?
Infrequent occurrences ## Footnote Intensive study methods, such as case studies, are essential for understanding events that happen rarely.
278
What is a strength of case studies compared to group design?
An individual is more than can be represented by the collection of average values on various dimensions.
279
What do case studies reveal that group approaches may miss?
Various nuances and subtleties of behavior.
280
Case studies are often naturally occurring and provide insight into situations that we could not ethically explore. True or False?
True
281
Fill in the blank: Case studies have the ability to reveal various _______ and subtleties of behavior.
282
What is a weakness of case studies regarding cause-effect conclusions?
Can be difficult to draw cause-effect conclusions ## Footnote Case studies often lack the ability to establish definitive causal relationships.
283
How do treatment case studies differ from typical case studies?
Treatment case studies allow for cause and effect to be measured ## Footnote This measurement is possible due to the structured nature of treatment interventions.
284
What is a potential issue with illness progression in case studies?
Illnesses can subside spontaneously ## Footnote This can complicate the interpretation of treatment effectiveness.
285
What challenge does the patient-researcher relationship pose in case studies?
May be difficult to maintain distant relationship ## Footnote A close relationship can introduce bias and affect the study's objectivity.
286
What is a concern regarding external validity in case studies?
Can findings from one individual be generalised? ## Footnote This raises questions about the applicability of the results to broader populations.
287
What are some weaknesses of case studies?
Biases, Interpretation, Data collection, Researcher may cherry pick from observations/measurements, Lack of generalisation, Time consuming and costly ## Footnote Each of these weaknesses can impact the validity and reliability of case study research.
288
Fill in the blank: One weakness of case studies is _______.
Biases
289
True or False: Case studies can provide results that generalize to a wider population.
False ## Footnote Case studies often lack generalizability due to their focus on specific instances.
290
What is a potential issue with data collection in case studies?
Researcher may cherry pick from observations/measurements ## Footnote This can lead to selective reporting and bias in findings.
291
Fill in the blank: Case studies may be _______ and _______ depending on the case.
Time consuming, costly
292
Why might results from case studies not generalize to the wider population?
Results may be found in similar case studies but may not generalise to wider population ## Footnote The specific context of a case study limits the applicability of its findings.
293
What does 'Group Designs' refer to in research?
Average performance of a group/groups ## Footnote Group Designs often involve comparing different populations or conditions to understand their performance metrics.
294
Give an example of a study that would use Group Designs.
Memory performance across different age groups ## Footnote This example illustrates how researchers might assess cognitive abilities in various age demographics.
295
What is the purpose of comparing average performance between groups?
To identify differences in performance metrics ## Footnote This comparison helps in understanding how different groups may respond to certain stimuli or interventions.
296
What does considering group variability entail?
How much people differ between each other ## Footnote Variability is crucial for understanding the range of responses within a group.
297
What is the importance of seeking statistical significance in Group Designs?
To determine if observed differences are meaningful ## Footnote Statistical significance helps in validating the findings and ensuring they are not due to chance.
298
What is the primary characteristic of group design?
Analysis using evidence from several sources of evidence or individuals.
299
True or False: Group design is precise about every characteristic of participants.
False
300
What is required for the homogeneity of participants in group design?
Objective measurements.
301
How can group design be conducted?
In an unambiguous fashion without subjectivity.
302
What are the methods through which data can be obtained in group design?
* Naturalistic observation * Psychometric tests * Experimental measurements
303
What are objective inclusion criteria?
Criteria that can be decided based on the research focus/aims ## Footnote Objective inclusion criteria help in defining the specific participants that will be included in a study.
304
What is a strength of group designs?
They provide information about a common group quality ## Footnote This allows researchers to generalize findings across a population.
305
How do group designs aid in understanding participant characteristics?
They are useful for studying interactions between conditions and participant characteristics ## Footnote This helps in identifying how different factors influence outcomes.
306
What is the benefit of studying cases where a characteristic moderates an effect?
It allows researchers to explore specific interactions in depth ## Footnote This can lead to more tailored interventions or understandings.
307
What advantage do group designs have regarding results?
Results can be replicated and generalized ## Footnote This is crucial for validating research findings.
308
What is meant by higher statistical power in group designs?
It refers to the increased ability to detect true effects ## Footnote Higher statistical power reduces the likelihood of Type II errors.
309
Fill in the blank: Group designs can provide information about a _______ group quality.
common ## Footnote This highlights the focus on shared characteristics within the study group.
310
True or False: Group designs are not useful for studying interactions between conditions and participant characteristics.
False ## Footnote Group designs are specifically useful for this purpose.
311
What are the specific aims of group designs?
They can be specific to research focus/aims ## Footnote This specificity enhances the relevance and applicability of the research.
312
What is one detailed aspect that group designs help to understand?
A particular aspect in detail ## Footnote This allows for in-depth analysis of specific variables.
313
What is a weakness of group designs?
Surface level investigation of phenomena ## Footnote Group designs may not delve deeply into the complexities of the phenomena being studied.
314
What individual aspect is often overlooked in group designs?
Individual differences ## Footnote Group designs typically focus on averages and may ignore variations among individuals.
315
What method do group designs primarily use to analyze data?
Compares means across groups ## Footnote This approach summarizes data by calculating the average for each group, potentially obscuring important individual data.
316
What limitation does group design have regarding individual variability?
Does not consider individual variability ## Footnote Individual responses can vary widely, and group designs may not capture this important aspect.
317
What is a logistical drawback of group designs for large projects?
Time-consuming and costly ## Footnote Implementing group designs can require significant resources in terms of time and money, especially for large studies.
318
What is evidence?
Evidence is any information that helps us answer our question.
319
List some sources of evidence.
* Published Research * Books * Research Data * Experimental Data * Observations * Interview transcripts
320
True or False: Evidence can only come from published research.
False
321
What must we determine when multiple sources of evidence contradict each other?
Which evidence we should rely on.
322
What are journals used for in the context of research?
Journals are where people publish current research findings ## Footnote Journals serve as platforms for disseminating new knowledge and findings in various fields.
323
What types of topics can journals target?
Journals can target a broad range of topics ## Footnote This includes multi-disciplinary approaches, specific methodologies, and subject-specific areas.
324
What is an example of a multi-disciplinary journal?
'Nature' ## Footnote 'Nature' is renowned for covering a wide array of scientific disciplines.
325
Give an example of a journal that targets a specific methodology.
'The British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology' ## Footnote This journal focuses on methodologies related to mathematical and statistical approaches in psychology.
326
Name a journal that focuses specifically on neuroscience.
'Neuroscience' ## Footnote This journal publishes research specifically related to the field of neuroscience.
327
What are examples of subject-specific journals?
* 'Memory' * 'Personality and Individual Differences' ## Footnote These journals focus on specialized topics within psychology.
328
What type of articles are considered high-quality evidence?
Peer reviewed journal articles ## Footnote Peer reviewed articles are evaluated by experts in the field before publication, ensuring a level of quality and reliability.
329
True or False: No experiment is ever perfect.
True ## Footnote All experiments have limitations and potential flaws, which can affect the interpretation of results.
330
What should we maintain when reviewing published evidence?
A critical eye ## Footnote Critical evaluation involves questioning the validity and reliability of the evidence presented.
331
As you progress through your studies, what becomes easier regarding evidence evaluation?
Gaining knowledge about research methods and the discipline ## Footnote Increased familiarity with research methodologies helps in critically assessing the quality of evidence.
332
Fill in the blank: Published evidence can contain _______.
flaws ## Footnote Flaws may arise from methodological issues, biases, or misinterpretations.
333
Why should we view peer-reviewed articles with caution?
They can be flawed or interpreted in other ways ## Footnote Different researchers may have varying interpretations of the same data, leading to different conclusions.
334
What are the advantages of using books as a source of literature?
Books can undergo peer review and provide in-depth coverage of topics ## Footnote However, books can quickly become outdated.
335
What are the limitations of relying solely on books?
Books can quickly be out of date ## Footnote This emphasizes the need for current information.
336
Why are webpages considered less reputable sources of evidence?
Webpages are not peer reviewed and can be contributed to by anyone ## Footnote Especially sites like Wikipedia.
337
What type of literature should be better avoided as sources of evidence?
Webpages, particularly non-e-journals ## Footnote They lack peer review and reliability.
338
What are conference proceedings and their referencing challenges?
Conference proceedings are harder to reference and may contain published abstracts ## Footnote They can provide valuable insights but lack comprehensive citation.
339
What was the dominant psychological theory around the early to mid 20th Century?
Behaviourism ## Footnote Behaviourism focused on observable behaviors and the ways they can be conditioned.
340
What evidence supports the idea that behavior can be manipulated?
Conditioning ## Footnote Conditioning refers to the processes of classical and operant conditioning that modify behavior.
341
Who proposed the concept of Preparedness in relation to behaviorism?
Seligman (1970) ## Footnote Seligman's concept of Preparedness suggests that evolution influences how easily animals can learn certain behaviors.
342
What does Preparedness imply about learning in animals?
Animals are predisposed to learn some things more easily than others ## Footnote This means that certain types of learning are more natural or instinctive for different species.
343
What significant aspect did behaviourism ignore?
Mental processes ## Footnote This oversight led to the development of new theories that included cognitive processes.
344
Despite falling from favor, what continued to be relevant in society?
Evidence from behaviourism ## Footnote Examples of behaviorism's relevance include its applications in areas like education and therapy.
345
Name two areas where behaviorism is still prevalent today.
* Potty Training * Gambling ## Footnote These areas utilize principles of conditioning to influence behavior.
346
True or False: Behaviourism is no longer relevant in modern psychology.
False ## Footnote Although its prominence has diminished, its principles still influence various fields.
347
What is the perception of how science advances?
Science jumps forward in significant leaps ## Footnote This perception is illustrated by historical figures like Copernicus and Einstein.
348
Which model of science is aligned with the idea of paradigm shifts?
Kuhn's model of Science ## Footnote Kuhn's model emphasizes that scientific advancement often involves major shifts in understanding.
349
Is the leap forward perception of science commonly accurate?
No, it is a popular perception but not commonly the case ## Footnote The advancement of science is often gradual rather than through sudden leaps.
350
What role do experiments play in scientific conclusions?
Experiments rarely completely decide an issue ## Footnote They often leave other explanations open for consideration.
351
How do scientists typically support conclusions?
By considering evidence from multiple studies ## Footnote Each study may have its own flaws, but collectively they can support a conclusion.
352
Fill in the blank: Scientific advancement is often perceived as __________.
[leaps forward] ## Footnote This perception contrasts with the reality of gradual synthesis in scientific understanding.
353
What is a key characteristic of scientific experiments?
They have flaws but contribute to collective evidence ## Footnote This characteristic emphasizes the importance of evaluating multiple studies.
354
What does gradual synthesis refer to in research?
Exploring a phenomenon in multiple different ways to see the bigger picture ## Footnote This approach is emphasized over direct replications.
355
According to Anderson and Anderson (1996), what indicates a robust effect?
A conceptual hypothesis surviving many potential falsifications based on different sets of assumptions ## Footnote This highlights the importance of diverse methodological approaches.
356
True or False: Direct replications are considered very informative.
False ## Footnote The text suggests that direct replications do not provide significant insights.
357
Fill in the blank: When a conceptual hypothesis survives many potential falsifications, we have a _______.
robust effect ## Footnote This is a key conclusion drawn from the research approach discussed.
358
What is the implication of using different methods in research?
Different methods are likely to involve different assumptions ## Footnote This variation can lead to a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon.
359
What is the importance of converging evidence?
It supports the notion of falsification, encourages psychology to be more scientific, and means we wait for further evidence before making sensational/misleading claims. ## Footnote Converging evidence refers to multiple lines of evidence that lead to the same conclusion, strengthening the validity of the findings.
360
How does converging evidence relate to the scientific method?
It encourages psychology to be more scientific. ## Footnote This relates to the need for rigorous testing and verification of theories through empirical evidence.
361
True or False: Converging evidence allows for immediate claims without further evidence.
False. ## Footnote The principle emphasizes waiting for further evidence before making claims.
362
Fill in the blank: The use of converging evidence supports the notion of _______.
[falsification]. ## Footnote Falsification is the process of proving a hypothesis false, which is a cornerstone of the scientific method.
363
What is a core principle of scientific progress?
Reproducibility ## Footnote Open Science Collaboration (2015, p. аac4716-1)
364
On what basis should claims in science be considered strong?
On their merit ## Footnote Claims should not be judged solely by their pedigree.
365
What should science be to allow for debate among scientists?
Transparent ## Footnote Transparency is essential for evaluating theories.
366
What are the three types of issues that can be debated in scientific discussions?
* Methodological issues * Theoretical issues * New data ## Footnote These discussions hinge on the reproducibility of findings.
367
True or False: If findings are not reproducible, discussions based on them are questionable.
True ## Footnote The validity of scientific discussions relies on reproducibility.
368
What is direct replication?
The attempt to recreate the conditions in which a previous finding was observed.
369
How do we achieve direct replication in psychology?
Through our methods sections.
370
What is provided in the methods section to allow replication?
Everything we feel is necessary to allow replication.
371
What does allowing replication enable a researcher to do?
Consider if the methodology is suitable to answer the research question.
372
What is the primary aim of direct replication?
To allow replication.
373
What does replication in research indicate?
It means there is support for these studies ## Footnote Replication enhances the reliability of findings.
374
True or False: Replication guarantees that the theoretical interpretation is correct.
False ## Footnote Replication does not confirm the correctness of theoretical interpretations.
375
What does a successful replication imply about the findings?
The finding has greater reliability ## Footnote Reliability is crucial for validating research conclusions.
376
Fill in the blank: Replication does not mean that the replicated effects are _______.
true ## Footnote This highlights the distinction between replication and absolute truth in findings.
377
Would we expect all findings in Psychology to replicate?
It is difficult to say ## Footnote The variability in psychological research makes replication uncertain.
378
What does replication in research indicate?
It means there is support for these studies ## Footnote Replication enhances the reliability of findings.
379
True or False: Replication guarantees that the theoretical interpretation is correct.
False ## Footnote Replication does not confirm the correctness of theoretical interpretations.
380
What does a successful replication imply about the findings?
The finding has greater reliability ## Footnote Reliability is crucial for validating research conclusions.
381
Fill in the blank: Replication does not mean that the replicated effects are _______.
true ## Footnote This highlights the distinction between replication and absolute truth in findings.
382
Would we expect all findings in Psychology to replicate?
It is difficult to say ## Footnote The variability in psychological research makes replication uncertain.
383
What is a common misconception regarding failure to replicate studies?
It is too easy to say that failure to replicate is a result of a false positive ## Footnote This highlights the complexity of replication issues.
384
What are some reasons that can lead to failed replications?
Methodological differences ## Footnote Variations in how studies are conducted can impact replication outcomes.
385
What specific criterion did OSC (2015) use for replication studies?
Only replicated studies where they could get the original materials ## Footnote This emphasizes the importance of access to original research materials.
386
What small factors could affect replication outcomes?
* Sample * Setting * Small changes in procedure ## Footnote These factors may seem minor but can significantly influence study results.
387
True or False: Differences in replication rates between Social and Cognitive fields can be explained by methodological factors.
True ## Footnote Methodological differences may contribute to varying replication rates.
388
What type of research is primarily explored in the discussed replications?
Experiments ## Footnote The replications mainly focus on experimental data collection.
389
Do psychologists only collect data via experiments?
No ## Footnote Psychologists also collect data using qualitative measures.
390
Would we expect qualitative work to replicate?
We would hope for similar themes ## Footnote Repeating interviews in similar circumstances could yield similar themes.
391
Is an exact replication of qualitative research likely?
Unlikely ## Footnote Exact replications in qualitative work are not typically achievable.
392
What implication does the replication of qualitative work have for psychology?
It suggests variability in qualitative results ## Footnote The variability highlights challenges in achieving consistent findings in qualitative research.
393
What are the replication rates in psychology?
Lower than we would like.
394
What is encouraged for future research in psychology?
Researchers are encouraged to extend, not simply replicate.
395
What does a low replication rate indicate about future studies?
We have a potentially rocky foundation when planning future studies.
396
What should researchers consider if an extension of a study doesn't work?
It may indicate that the original finding is inaccurate.
397
What limits the planning of studies in psychology?
We can only plan studies based on the literature that is available to us (published).
398
Fill in the blank: Researchers are encouraged to ______, not simply replicate.
[extend]
399
True or False: Publication bias can affect the studies planned by researchers.
True
400
What are the implications of only publishing statistically significant effects?
Researchers may unknowingly attempt to replicate studies that have been shown to have no effect. ## Footnote This leads to a gap in the scientific literature where strong studies are omitted.
401
What is the nature of science according to the content?
Science is a process, not just finding something significant. ## Footnote This emphasizes the ongoing exploration and validation in scientific research.
402
What ethical questions arise from publication bias?
We are potentially asking participants to devote time to studies which have already failed to produce significant effects. ## Footnote This raises concerns about the informed consent and resource allocation in research.
403
What issue arises from relying on prior significant work for future studies?
All future work is supported using prior work that was significant (even if we cannot replicate half of them). ## Footnote This can perpetuate flawed research directions and mislead future studies.
404
True or False: A series of strong scientific studies are often included in the scientific literature.
False. ## Footnote Strong studies may be omitted if they do not produce statistically significant results.
405
What is the purpose of pre-registration in research?
To register hypotheses and methodologies prior to data collection ## Footnote This separates the hypothesis-generation and hypothesis-testing processes.
406
How does pre-registration help prevent data mining?
By separating the hypothesis-generation and hypothesis-testing processes ## Footnote This ensures that researchers do not manipulate data to find supportive results.
407
What is the Open Science Framework?
A platform that supports transparency in research practices ## Footnote It facilitates pre-registration and sharing of research findings.
408
What type of publication focuses on negative or null results?
The Journal of Negative and Null Results ## Footnote This journal aims to publish findings that may not typically be reported.
409
What is one of the statistical techniques mentioned for supporting null findings?
Other statistical techniques that allow support for null findings ## Footnote These techniques help validate studies with non-significant results.
410
True or False: Pre-registration occurs after data collection.
False ## Footnote Pre-registration happens before collecting data.
411
Fill in the blank: The move towards publishing some findings includes a memory special issue that is in _______.
prep ## Footnote This indicates ongoing efforts to document and publish various research results.
412
What are important issues in research that impact future works?
Replication and publication bias ## Footnote These biases affect the reliability of published research, which is heavily relied upon for guiding future studies.
413
What is suggested for the discipline regarding the availability of research?
Move towards a model where good work is made available irrespective of statistical significance ## Footnote This suggests that valuable research should be shared regardless of whether it meets conventional standards of statistical significance.
414
Does statistical significance make work theoretically interesting?
No ## Footnote Statistical significance alone does not determine the theoretical interest or contribution of research.
415
What movement is occurring in the scientific community to improve research practices?
'Open science' ## Footnote Open science involves researchers sharing a priori predictions, methods, and data to enhance transparency and dissemination.
416
Fill in the blank: The reliance on published works to guide future works highlights the importance of _______.
replication and publication bias
417
True or False: All published research is considered theoretically interesting.
False ## Footnote Theoretical interest is not guaranteed by statistical significance.
418
What is a key practice in the 'open science' movement?
Making predictions, methods, and data available ## Footnote This practice aims to improve the accuracy and dissemination of research findings.
419
What is Social Psychology?
The scientific study of how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviour are shaped by the presence of others.
420
What does the Milgram (1963) study illustrate?
The power of obedience to encourage dangerous behaviours.
421
What is the Bystander Effect?
The presence of bystanders affects the likelihood of helping someone.
422
What types of experiments are utilized in Social Psychology methodology?
Experiments can involve both lab and field experiments.
423
Fill in the blank: Social Psychology is the scientific study of how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviour are shaped by the presence of _______.
others
424
True or False: The Bystander Effect suggests that people are more likely to help others in the presence of bystanders.
False
425
What is the definition of personality and individual differences?
The scientific study of the enduring or relatively stable aspects of an individual and their impact on a person's thoughts, feelings and behaviour.
426
List the Big 5 personality traits.
* Conscientiousness * Neuroticism * Agreeableness * Extraversion * Openness
427
What is cognitive psychology?
The scientific study of mental processes e.g. memory, language, perception etc.
428
What was the focus of the cognitive experiment conducted by Lofus and Palmer in 1974?
The effect of different wording on remembering a car crash.
429
What methodology is often used in cognitive psychology to collect data?
Experiments and computational models.
430
True or False: Cognitive psychology only studies memory.
False
431
Fill in the blank: Cognitive psychology investigates mental processes such as _______.
memory, language, perception
432
What is Developmental Psychology?
The scientific study of how individuals change and grow across the lifespan. ## Footnote This includes investigating social, emotional, and cognitive development.
433
What methodologies are commonly employed in Developmental Psychology?
Similar to other psychological approaches, with particular use of observational methods when working with children. ## Footnote Observational methods are crucial for studying behaviors in natural settings.
434
What is the Language 0-5 study?
A study that has followed the language development of 80 English-learning children from 6 months to 4.6 years. ## Footnote This longitudinal study provides insights into early language acquisition.
435
Fill in the blank: Developmental Psychology investigates _______ development.
social, emotional, and cognitive
436
True or False: Developmental Psychology only focuses on cognitive development.
False ## Footnote It also includes social and emotional development.
437
What age range does the Language 0-5 study cover?
6 months to 4.6 years.
438
What type of methods are particularly used in Developmental Psychology when studying children?
Observational methods.
439
What type of data has been collected in the study of language development?
Detailed longitudinal corpus of naturalistic, experimental, questionnaire, and standardised measures of cognitive, socio-cognitive, and linguistic development ## Footnote This includes various methods to assess children's language development over time.
440
Which factors predict how quickly children are likely to learn words?
* Gender * Speed of language processing at 19 months * Verbal working memory at 25 and 31 months * Executive function ability at age 3 years ## Footnote These factors have been identified as significant predictors in the study of language acquisition.
441
At what age do individual differences in vocabulary comprehension emerge?
8 months of age ## Footnote This indicates that variations in language comprehension can be observed very early in development.
442
What is a strong predictor of later vocabulary growth in children?
Vocabulary size at 8 months ## Footnote The number of words a child knows at this age is closely linked to their vocabulary growth between 9 and 18 months.
443
Fill in the blank: Individual differences in language processing can be observed from _______.
8 months of age
444
True or False: Gender is not a predictor of how quickly children learn words.
False ## Footnote Gender has been identified as one of the factors influencing word learning speed.
445
What age is associated with assessing verbal working memory in the context of word learning?
25 and 31 months ## Footnote Verbal working memory assessments are critical in understanding language acquisition.
446
What cognitive ability is linked to language learning at age 3 years?
Executive function ability ## Footnote This ability is important for managing cognitive processes that facilitate language acquisition.
447
What is the relationship between vocabulary size at 8 months and vocabulary growth?
Vocabulary size at 8 months is a strong predictor of vocabulary growth between 9 and 18 months ## Footnote This highlights the importance of early vocabulary knowledge.
448
What is Biological Psychology?
The scientific study of biological, physiological or genetic mechanisms of psychological processes and behaviour. ## Footnote Biological psychology examines how physical aspects within the body and brain affect thoughts and behaviours.
449
What aspects does Biological Psychology concern itself with?
Physical aspects within the body and brain, including: * neurotransmitters * hormones * genetics ## Footnote These elements are critical in understanding their effects on thoughts and behaviours.
450
What is cyberpsychology?
The study of the impact of computers, technology, and virtual environments on the psychology of individuals and groups.
451
What aspects does the study of cyberpsychology involve?
All aspects of human behavior and thought.
452
What perspectives are taken in cyberpsychology?
Similar to real life, including biological impact, social influences, and effects on cognition.
453
How does cyberpsychology investigate psychological processes?
In the context of technology and computers.
454
True or False: Cyberpsychology only focuses on negative impacts of technology.
False
455
What is social computing?
Social computing looks at how your beliefs can be altered by others.
456
How can social pressure influence behavior?
Social pressure can lead individuals to conform to the opinions or actions of others.
457
What role do similar interests play in social influence?
Similar interests can create connections, as seen in recommendations like 'people who bought this also bought...'
458
Define conformity in the context of social psychology.
Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms.
459
What is attribution in social psychology?
Attribution is the process of explaining the causes of behavior and events.
460
What factors contribute to attitude and belief formation?
Factors include personal experiences, social influences, and cultural contexts.
461
What is interpersonal communication?
Interpersonal communication is the exchange of information between individuals.
462
What is altruistic behavior?
Altruistic behavior refers to selfless concern for the well-being of others.
463
What is aggression in the context of social psychology?
Aggression is behavior intended to harm another individual.
464
What is bullying?
Bullying is repeated aggressive behavior intended to intimidate or harm another person.
465
What are group processes?
Group processes refer to the ways in which individuals interact and function within a group.
466
What is synchronicity in cyberspace?
A factor due to synchronous versus asynchronous forms of communication. ## Footnote Synchronous communication occurs in real-time, while asynchronous communication does not require participants to be engaged simultaneously.
467
What are boundaries in the context of cyberspace?
Factors due to distance across geographic, ethnic, and social boundaries. ## Footnote These boundaries can affect communication and interaction in digital environments.
468
What are the changes in information in cyberspace?
Changes in the amount, type, and control of information due to: * Partial information * Selective exposure to information * Biased information ## Footnote These factors can influence how information is perceived and disseminated in digital communication.
469
What did Gabrielle, Sonne, and Indolo (2024) investigate?
The link between social media use and mental health ## Footnote This study reviewed 45 different studies on the topic.
470
What associations were found between increased social media use and mental health?
Increased depressive symptoms, anxiety, and loneliness ## Footnote The associations were small but significant.
471
What was the relationship between social media use and self-esteem?
A significant negative association was found ## Footnote Increased social media use correlated with lower self-esteem.
472
True or False: The relationship between social media and mental health is straightforward.
False ## Footnote The relationship is nuanced and complex.
473
What are some factors that complicate the relationship between social media and mental health?
Response bias, methodological weakness, and protective factors ## Footnote These factors can influence the outcomes and interpretations of studies.
474
Which brain region is important for cognitive processes including decision-making, attention, and impulse control?
Prefrontal cortex ## Footnote The prefrontal cortex is crucial in regulating behaviors related to moral and social development.
475
What do lesion studies suggest about prefrontal lesions?
They can disrupt moral and social development ## Footnote This finding is supported by research conducted by Taber-Thomas et al. (2014).
476
Which brain region is implicated in emotional processes?
Amygdala ## Footnote The amygdala plays a significant role in processing emotions.
477
How are psychopathy scores related to amygdala reactivity?
Negative relationship ## Footnote This indicates that higher psychopathy scores are associated with lower amygdala reactivity, as found by Hyde et al. (2014).
478
How are antisocial personality disorder scores related to amygdala reactivity?
Positively associated ## Footnote This suggests that higher scores in antisocial personality disorder correlate with greater amygdala reactivity.
479
Which brain region is implicated in reward and emotional processing?
Striatum ## Footnote The striatum is involved in how we process rewards and emotions.
480
What differences have been found in striatal volume and reactivity between violent offenders and non-offenders?
Increased striatal volume and reactivity to provocations in violent offenders ## Footnote This finding is supported by studies conducted by Schiffer et al. (2011) and da Cunha-Bang et al. (2017).
481
What was the primary focus of the study comparing violent offenders with healthy controls?
The study focused on enhanced connectivity between amygdala-PFC and striatum-PFC in violent criminals after provocation compared to healthy controls.
482
What specific brain regions showed enhanced connectivity in violent criminals?
The amygdala and prefrontal cortex (PFC), and the striatum and prefrontal cortex (PFC).
483
True or False: The study found reduced connectivity between amygdala-PFC in violent offenders.
False
484
Fill in the blank: The study found enhanced connectivity between _______ in violent criminals after provocation.
amygdala-PFC and striatum-PFC
485
What type of offenders were compared to healthy controls in the study?
Violent offenders
486
What was the outcome of the connectivity analysis in violent criminals?
Enhanced connectivity after provocation.
487
What is the natural world described as?
Very complex place
488
What varies among different people and environments?
A wide range of factors
489
What are some problems with waiting for a behaviour/event to occur naturally?
We never know when an event will occur, Some events are really low frequency, Uncertainty about the variable causing the event
490
Why do we seek to isolate a variable?
To manipulate it and advance our understanding
491
Fill in the blank: We never know when an event will occur, and some events are really _______.
low frequency
492
True or False: Waiting for events to occur naturally is always reliable.
False
493
What are the basic foundations of scientific thinking according to Schacter (2014)?
Comparison and Control ## Footnote These are essential for gaining understanding and testing theories.
494
Why is comparison important in scientific thinking?
To gain further understanding of conditions in the world ## Footnote It helps avoid isolated instances that lack broader context.
495
What is the purpose of control in scientific environments?
To limit the effects of differences in environments ## Footnote This allows for the rejection of inaccurate theories and supports valid ones.
496
True or False: Isolated instances in scientific research can provide comprehensive understanding.
False ## Footnote Comparison is necessary to draw meaningful conclusions.
497
Fill in the blank: The two foundations of scientific thinking are _______ and _______.
Comparison and Control
498
Why is control important in psychology experiments?
It allows us to explore single variables in our world ## Footnote Control is essential for isolating the effects of specific variables.
499
What is a consequence of lacking relevant control in experiments?
We would never be able to determine what is driving an effect ## Footnote Without control, the relationship between variables cannot be accurately assessed.
500
What does control help us determine in experiments?
Causation ## Footnote Establishing causation is crucial for understanding the cause-and-effect relationships.
501
What type of questions can control help us address?
Questions that we cannot access in the real world ## Footnote Experimental control allows for the investigation of scenarios that may not be ethically or practically feasible in real life.
502
What example is given to illustrate the necessity of control in experiments?
Harlow's experiment ## Footnote Harlow's work with rhesus monkeys could not be replicated in real-world situations due to ethical considerations.
503
Can we be too controlling in scientific research?
True ## Footnote While control is necessary, excessive control may limit the applicability of findings to real-world scenarios.
504
Why is control important in psychology experiments?
It allows us to explore single variables in our world ## Footnote Control is essential for isolating the effects of specific variables.
505
What is a consequence of lacking relevant control in experiments?
We would never be able to determine what is driving an effect ## Footnote Without control, the relationship between variables cannot be accurately assessed.
506
What does control help us determine in experiments?
Causation ## Footnote Establishing causation is crucial for understanding the cause-and-effect relationships.
507
What type of questions can control help us address?
Questions that we cannot access in the real world ## Footnote Experimental control allows for the investigation of scenarios that may not be ethically or practically feasible in real life.
508
What example is given to illustrate the necessity of control in experiments?
Harlow's experiment ## Footnote Harlow's work with rhesus monkeys could not be replicated in real-world situations due to ethical considerations.
509
Can we be too controlling in scientific research?
True ## Footnote While control is necessary, excessive control may limit the applicability of findings to real-world scenarios.

Psychology (5 decks)

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