Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM


Top Flashcards (Certified)
All Flashcards

Psychology > Psychology > Flashcards

Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

What is Psychology?

A

Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behaviour.

(Schacter, Gilbert, Wegner and Hood, 2012, p. 6)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What does ‘Mind’ refer to in psychology?

A

Mind is our internal experience.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What does ‘Behaviour’ refer to in psychology?

A

Behaviour is our observable actions.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What is Biological Psychology?

A

Explores how our biology interacts with psychological processes

This field examines the connection between biological factors and mental processes.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What does Cognitive Psychology study?

A

The study of mental processes, ‘thinking’ and problem solving

Cognitive psychology focuses on how we perceive, remember, and think about information.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What is the focus of Developmental Psychology?

A

Study of how psychological processes change over time

This field investigates psychological growth and change from infancy to adulthood.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What does Personality and Individual Differences examine?

A

The study of personality and how psychological processes vary from one person to the next

It looks at traits, behaviors, and characteristics that make individuals unique.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What is the main focus of Social Psychology?

A

Explores the psychological processes that operate when we interact with others

This field studies how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual or imagined presence of others.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What does the wide range of approaches in Psychology imply?

A

There is no right or wrong approach

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What are the approaches in Psychology considered as?

A

Lenses through which we make sense of phenomena

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Are the approaches in Psychology exclusive?

A

No, several lenses can be applied to the same topic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Name a key topic that can be studied from multiple psychological approaches.

A

Memory

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What biological aspect can be explored in Psychology?

A

Biology

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What underlying aspect does Psychology examine?

A

Underlying Processes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What developmental changes are explored in Psychology?

A

Development in kids/deterioration in old age

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What factor does Psychology consider when examining performance differences?

A

Social influences

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

What is psychology?

A

The scientific study of mind and behaviour.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What is a pivotal question in psychology?

A

How we move our discipline forward.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

How do psychologists advance their discipline?

A

By asking questions and addressing them using scientific methods.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What do psychologists develop to explore theories?

A

Theories.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What methods do psychologists use to develop theories?

A

Via observation and using previous literature.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Fill in the blank: Psychologists develop questions to explore _______.

A

[theory]

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What is the definition of Psychology?

A

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Psychology encompasses various aspects of human experience, including thoughts, emotions, and actions.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

What is a Theory in Psychology?

A

A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world.

Theories are based on a body of evidence and can be used to predict future occurrences.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
What is a Hypothesis?
A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. ## Footnote Hypotheses are often formulated based on theories and are tested through research.
26
What does it mean when a Hypothesis is supported?
Evidence gathered from testing indicates that the hypothesis is likely true. ## Footnote This often leads to further testing and refinement of the theory.
27
What does it mean when a Hypothesis is rejected?
Evidence gathered from testing indicates that the hypothesis is likely false. ## Footnote Rejection of a hypothesis can lead to the modification of the original theory.
28
What is the process that allows us to move forward in our understanding in Psychology?
The iterative process of forming a hypothesis, testing it, and refining theories based on the results. ## Footnote This scientific method is crucial for advancing psychological research.
29
What influences the development of research questions?
The real world and academic literature ## Footnote Both aspects guide researchers in formulating their inquiries.
30
What is the first stage of any research project?
To review the academic literature and begin to develop a theory ## Footnote This stage is crucial for understanding existing knowledge and forming a basis for new research.
31
What purpose does academic literature serve in research?
It helps address real world problems ## Footnote Academic literature provides insights and frameworks that can be applied to practical issues.
32
Fill in the blank: The first stage of any research project is to _______.
[review the academic literature and begin to develop a theory]
33
True or False: Academic literature is irrelevant when developing research questions.
False ## Footnote Academic literature plays a significant role in shaping research inquiries.
34
What is psychology?
Psychology is a scientific discipline ## Footnote Psychology focuses on understanding the mind and behavior.
35
What is the primary focus of psychology?
To devise theories and ask questions to help us understand the mind and behavior ## Footnote This focus enables the development of a deeper understanding of psychological processes.
36
How do conclusions in psychology influence future research?
Conclusions guide future research and can be applied to real-world problems ## Footnote This application can lead to practical solutions in various fields.
37
Are theories in psychology considered facts?
No, theories are not facts and are open to being questioned ## Footnote This characteristic allows for the continuous evolution of psychological understanding.
38
What impact can psychology have on society?
Psychology can massively impact our world and help better society ## Footnote This impact can manifest in various forms, including mental health improvements and social interventions.
39
What role do individuals play in the process of psychology?
Individuals are part of the process of psychological inquiry and development ## Footnote This involvement underscores the collaborative nature of psychological research.
40
What are constructs in psychology?
Constructs are broad terms for a complicated collection of internal processes and behaviors ## Footnote Constructs represent tendencies to think, feel, and act in certain ways, but not consistently.
41
Can psychological constructs be directly observed?
No, psychological constructs cannot be directly observed ## Footnote They often represent internal processes such as thoughts and feelings.
42
Give an example of a psychological construct.
Extraversion ## Footnote Extraverts may be outgoing but can also be quiet in certain situations, like lectures.
43
What challenges are associated with measuring emotional states?
Emotional states cannot be measured with a ruler ## Footnote This highlights the complexity of psychological constructs.
44
How do personality characteristics relate to constructs?
Personality characteristics are not always expressed the same way ## Footnote This variability complicates the observation of constructs.
45
Fill in the blank: Psychological constructs often include internal processes such as _______.
thoughts and feelings
46
True or False: Constructs always represent consistent behaviors.
False ## Footnote Constructs indicate tendencies that may not be expressed all the time.
47
What is a challenge in observing attitudes towards crime and punishment?
They are difficult to observe ## Footnote This emphasizes the complexity of psychological constructs.
48
What is the importance of clarity when developing a question?
It is important to be clear about what we are exploring.
49
Define Operational Definition.
Description of an abstract property in terms of a concrete condition that can be measured.
50
What do Watson and Clark argue about Extraversion?
Positive emotionality should be seen as the core of Extraversion with a high degree of sociability.
51
According to McCrea and John, what traits are associated with Extraversion?
Dominant, talkative, sociable, and warm.
52
Fill in the blank: An Operational Definition is a description of an abstract property in terms of a _______.
[concrete condition that can be measured]
53
True or False: It is unnecessary to operationalise terms when developing a question.
False
54
What is the preferred source for developing questions?
Academic literature ## Footnote Academic literature provides more specialized definitions than dictionaries.
55
Why are dictionary definitions considered less preferable in developing questions?
They are not specialized ## Footnote Dictionary definitions may lack the depth and context needed for academic purposes.
56
What is the first step in developing a question?
Identifying key behaviours and constructs ## Footnote This includes having clear definitions of what is being explored.
57
What should be considered when thinking about questions?
The underlying questions ## Footnote It's important to ensure that the questions are relevant and meaningful.
58
True or False: 'Fraud increasing' is an acceptable question.
False ## Footnote This statement lacks depth and specificity for a research question.
59
What might you need to do if you can't find a suitable question?
Move away from your original observation/news story ## Footnote This allows for broader exploration of related topics.
60
What is a critical aspect to identify in developing a question?
The underlying psychological question of interest ## Footnote Understanding the psychological aspect is crucial for framing effective questions.
61
Fill in the blank: Once we have started to identify the key behaviours and constructs, we can start to think about our _______.
[questions]
62
What is a theory?
'Hypothetical account of how and why a phenomenon occurs, usually in the form of a statement about the causal relationship between 2 or more properties' Schacter et al. (2020, p. 48) ## Footnote Theories serve to explain various phenomena and can guide further research.
63
What is a rationale in the context of developing theories?
A reason as to why we believe a theory to be the case ## Footnote Rationales become more important as you progress through the course and expand your RDA knowledge.
64
What is the first step in developing theories after forming a question?
To start developing theories ## Footnote This process involves hypothesizing causal relationships based on the question posed.
65
Fill in the blank: A theory is a _______ account of how and why a phenomenon occurs.
hypothetical
66
True or False: Rationales are not important in the development of theories.
False ## Footnote Rationales become increasingly important as knowledge expands.
67
What factors inform the approaches we take in psychology?
The types of questions we ask ## Footnote Different questions lead to different psychological approaches.
68
What does the cognitive perspective in psychology explore?
The processes behind decision making and how to change these ## Footnote This perspective focuses on mental processes.
69
What is the focus of the personality approach in psychology?
Traits approach, considered more static and therefore less subject to change ## Footnote This approach looks at stable characteristics of individuals.
70
What does the social approach in psychology examine?
How others influence our decisions ## Footnote It includes the study of peer influence.
71
True or False: The same topics in psychology can only be approached in one way.
False ## Footnote The same topics can be approached in very different ways.
72
What philosophical group is associated with Logical Positivism?
Vienna Circle
73
What does Logical Positivism propose regarding ideas?
Outlining if an idea was meaningful or if it was nonsense
74
What are the two main types of statements according to Logical Positivism?
* Definitions * Verifiable empirical statements
75
Give an example of a definition that is meaningfully true.
A triangle has three sides
76
What is an example of a verifiable empirical statement?
Eating cheese before bed gives you nightmares
77
According to Logical Positivism, when are statements considered meaningful?
If they could be verifiable
78
What philosophical group is associated with Logical Positivism?
Vienna Circle
79
What does Logical Positivism propose regarding ideas?
Outlining if an idea was meaningful or if it was nonsense
80
What are the two main types of statements according to Logical Positivism?
* Definitions * Verifiable empirical statements
81
Give an example of a definition that is meaningfully true.
A triangle has three sides
82
What is an example of a verifiable empirical statement?
Eating cheese before bed gives you nightmares
83
According to Logical Positivism, when are statements considered meaningful?
If they could be verifiable
84
What is systematic empiricism?
'The practice of relying on observation.' ## Footnote Stanovich, 2013, p. 9
85
What does the term 'empirical' suggest?
Facts are derived by observation and experience as opposed to theory.
86
What is the Greek origin of the word 'empirical'?
It comes from the Greek 'emperos'.
87
How can science be viewed when combined with logical positivism?
As a series of logical states that could be observed and verified.
88
Fill in the blank: All swans are _______.
white
89
What is the main problem with logical positivism?
Scaling ## Footnote Logical positivism struggles with generalizing individual observations to broader claims.
90
What is an example of verifiable information at an individual level?
Georgia the swan is white ## Footnote This statement can be observed and verified directly.
91
What is the problem with generalization in logical positivism?
Cannot easily verify general claims ## Footnote General claims, such as 'all swans are white', cannot be readily verified through observation.
92
What is induction?
Process of inferring rules based on a set of particular observations ## Footnote Induction allows for generalizations from specific cases, despite the limitations of verification.
93
Who is associated with the concept of falsification?
Karl Popper
94
What did Karl Popper disagree with regarding the logical basis of induction?
He argued that observing many instances does not guarantee future instances.
95
According to Popper, what is the significance of observing a single black swan?
It can falsify the view that all swans are white.
96
What is the essence of falsification?
Proposing a theory and seeking to falsify it.
97
What does failure to falsify a theory indicate?
It is not proof, but support for the theory.
98
What does the term 'falsifying a theory' imply?
It means we need to amend the theory.
99
Can a theory be definitively proven according to Popper?
No, a theory cannot be definitively proven.
100
Fill in the blank: You can definitely _______ a theory.
falsify
101
How did Popper view the scientific community?
As a critical community ## Footnote Popper emphasized that the scientific community should challenge and test theories.
102
What is the process that Popper suggests scientists follow with their theories?
Put forward theories and attempt to break them ## Footnote This process is essential for scientific advancement.
103
According to Popper, what do areas that seek to verify not constitute?
Science ## Footnote Popper argued that verification does not lead to genuine scientific progress.
104
What is the result of breaking and amending theories?
Advancement of knowledge and understanding ## Footnote This practice helps refine scientific theories.
105
What term describes the increasing closeness of a theory to the truth?
Verisimilitude ## Footnote Verisimilitude refers to the degree of truthlikeness in theories.
106
Fill in the blank: Theory 2 is closer to truth than _______.
Theory 1 ## Footnote This illustrates the process of scientific refinement.
107
Who explored science through 'paradigms'?
Thomas Kuhn ## Footnote Thomas Kuhn is known for his work on the philosophy of science.
108
What is the title of Thomas Kuhn's seminal work?
'Structure of Scientific Revolution' (1962) ## Footnote This book discusses the nature of scientific progress and paradigm shifts.
109
What does the term 'paradigm' derive from?
The Greek for 'pattern' or 'template' ## Footnote The concept of paradigms is central to Kuhn's theory of scientific revolutions.
110
How does Kuhn describe the development of scientific practice?
Learned/developed by familiarity with successful application of theory ## Footnote This emphasizes the role of established theories in shaping scientific methods.
111
What happens as smaller paradigms become broadly accepted?
They form a single broad paradigm ## Footnote This indicates a consolidation of scientific understanding over time.
112
How does Kuhn characterize the structure of a paradigm?
Broad but rigid structure ## Footnote This suggests that while paradigms can encompass a wide range of theories, they also impose constraints on scientific inquiry.
113
What occurs during the 'normal science' phase of a paradigm?
'Normal science' occurs by forcing all ideas into the accepted paradigm. ## Footnote This refers to the phase where existing theories are tested and refined without questioning the foundational assumptions.
114
According to Kuhn, what is the role of critical discourse in science?
The abandonment of critical discourse is what makes a science. ## Footnote Critical discourse involves questioning and challenging existing paradigms, which is essential for scientific progress.
115
What happens to results that do not fit the accepted paradigm?
They are rejected and considered the mistake of the researcher, not the paradigm. ## Footnote This highlights the resistance within scientific communities to change established theories.
116
What occurs when criticisms of a paradigm continue to emerge?
The paradigm reaches crisis and no longer functions. ## Footnote This crisis may lead to the questioning of the paradigm's validity and the search for alternatives.
117
What state follows the crisis of a paradigm?
A pre-paradigmatic state until a new paradigm is accepted. ## Footnote This state is characterized by uncertainty and exploration of new ideas.
118
How did Kuhn describe the transition to a new paradigm?
He likened it to a conversion experience. ## Footnote This analogy emphasizes the profound change in perspective that accompanies the adoption of a new paradigm.
119
What is a paradigm shift in science?
A fundamental change in the basic concepts and practices of a scientific discipline.
120
Name one example of a paradigm shift in the scientific world.
Flat earth to round earth.
121
What system did the Ptolematic system shift to?
The Copernican System.
122
What replaced Newtonian Physics after 200 years?
Quantum mechanics.
123
Who moved away from Galen's system of anatomy?
Vesalius.
124
What did Kuhn believe about the nature of scientific progress?
That science jumps forward rather than progresses gradually.
125
What is a paradigm shift in science?
A fundamental change in the basic concepts and practices of a scientific discipline.
126
Name one example of a paradigm shift in the scientific world.
Flat earth to round earth.
127
What system did the Ptolematic system shift to?
The Copernican System.
128
What replaced Newtonian Physics after 200 years?
Quantum mechanics.
129
Who moved away from Galen's system of anatomy?
Vesalius.
130
What did Kuhn believe about the nature of scientific progress?
That science jumps forward rather than progresses gradually.
131
What is the main focus of the debate between Kuhn and Popper?
Their differing views on scientific theories and paradigms.
132
True or False: Kuhn and Popper completely agreed on their views of scientific progress.
False
133
What is one similarity between Kuhn and Popper's ideas?
All observations are theory laden.
134
According to Popper, what is necessary for scientific progress?
Falsification
135
Fill in the blank: Popper believed the core theory could be _______ at any time.
challenged
136
Fill in the blank: Kuhn believed the central paradigm was _______ and should be rarely challenged.
sacred
137
What does Popper's philosophy emphasize in relation to scientific theories?
The ability to challenge and falsify theories.
138
What does Kuhn argue about the central paradigm in scientific research?
It should be rarely challenged.
139
Who proposed the idea of science as research programmes?
Imre Lakatos ## Footnote Lakatos is known for his contributions to the philosophy of science.
140
What does the term 'Hard Core' refer to in Lakatos's theory?
Set of assumptions which cannot be abandoned/changed ## Footnote The Hard Core forms the foundation of a research programme.
141
In Lakatos's framework, what role do auxiliary hypotheses play?
Items that did not support Hard Core ## Footnote Auxiliary hypotheses can be adjusted without affecting the Hard Core.
142
Fill in the blank: Imre Lakatos proposed the idea of science as _______.
research programmes
143
True or False: The Hard Core of a research programme can be easily changed.
False ## Footnote The Hard Core is meant to remain constant.
144
What is a Hard Core in scientific paradigms?
A foundational set of beliefs or theories that cannot be abandoned or altered without rejecting the entire core. ## Footnote Similar to a Kuhnian Paradigm.
145
What is an Auxiliary Hypothesis?
Evidence that threatens the core but does not outright reject it as Popper argued. ## Footnote Exploring these 'failures' can lead to significant insights about the central core.
146
True or False: A Hard Core can be altered without rejecting the entire scientific framework.
False ## Footnote Altering the Hard Core would mean rejecting the whole core.
147
Fill in the blank: The __________ is similar to a Kuhnian Paradigm and cannot be abandoned.
Hard Core
148
What can be learned through exploring Auxiliary Hypotheses?
We can learn a lot about the central core. ## Footnote This exploration provides insights into the foundational beliefs.
149
What constitutes science?
There is no real unified idea as to what constitutes science.
150
What is a common characteristic of scientific ideas?
Only ideas that can be feasibly tested are considered science.
151
What is essential for scientific validity?
We need to be able to falsify.
152
What role does observation play in science?
Observation is key.
153
What must accompany ideas or data in science?
Ideas/data cannot be considered without theory.
154
How is science characterized as a process?
Science is a process, which doesn't lead to the end fact.
155
What can challenge our understanding of science?
There are pinch points which challenge our understanding and change our approach.
156
What is a necessary condition for scientific information?
Science must be publicly available.
157
Fill in the blank: Ideas that can be feasibly tested are considered _______.
[science]
158
True or False: Scientific ideas must be capable of being falsified.
True
159
What is a key characteristic of science?
Empiricism/Observation is key ## Footnote Empiricism emphasizes the importance of observation and experience in the formation of knowledge.
160
What cannot be considered without theory in science?
Ideas/data ## Footnote Theories provide a framework for interpreting data and understanding observations.
161
How is science described in terms of its process?
Science is a process, which doesn't lead to the end fact ## Footnote This indicates that science is ongoing and subject to revision.
162
What are pinch points in science?
They challenge our understanding and change our approach ## Footnote Pinch points refer to critical moments or findings that prompt reevaluation of existing theories.
163
What must science be in order to be valid?
Publicly available ## Footnote Transparency allows for peer review and validation of scientific findings.
164
What type of ideas are considered science?
Only ideas that can be feasibly tested ## Footnote Testability is a fundamental criterion for scientific inquiry.
165
What is necessary for scientific ideas in terms of falsifiability?
We need to be able to falsify ## Footnote Falsifiability allows for the possibility of disproving a hypothesis, which is essential for scientific credibility.
166
True or False: There is a unified idea of what constitutes science.
False ## Footnote The concept of science is diverse and varies across different fields and disciplines.
167
Fill in the blank: Science must be _______ available.
publicly ## Footnote Public availability is crucial for scientific progress and collaboration.
168
Does the statement 'science leads to end facts' accurately describe the nature of science?
No ## Footnote Science is iterative and always open to new evidence and interpretations.
169
What is the historical significance of empiricism in psychology?
Empiricism has a history in psychology, with notable figures including Ebbinghaus, Stroop, Skinner, Milgram, Zimbardo, and Bandura.
170
Does empiricism alone make a topic scientific?
No, empiricism itself does not make a topic scientific.
171
What would happen if you observed everything you did in a day and wrote it down?
You would be no nearer to understanding the world.
172
What is crucial for gaining understanding through observations?
Observations must be 'systematic'.
173
What approach helps us learn more about our world in psychology?
A systematic approach.
174
What will you learn throughout your RDA course?
How to base your work on systematic empiricism.
175
Fill in the blank: Observations must be _______ to gain understanding.
systematic.
176
What is the assumption about scientists in theory?
Scientists are unbiased in their observations, measurements, and experiments.
177
How does observation relate to theory?
Observation justifies (or not) a theory the scientist already holds.
178
What determines what kinds of data to collect?
Theories determine what kinds of data to collect.
179
True or False: Theory in the absence of data is considered science.
False
180
True or False: Data alone make a science.
False
181
Why is it important to consider biases when forming a theory?
Because biases can influence the formation and justification of the theory.
182
What is debated amongst scientists and philosophers of science regarding psychology?
The use of theory and whether we can be truly unbiased in science ## Footnote This debate highlights the challenges of objectivity in scientific inquiry.
183
How do theories in psychology reflect the individual scientist?
Theories include and reflect the biases, prejudices, values, and assumptions of the individual scientist ## Footnote This suggests that personal perspectives can influence scientific outcomes.
184
What role do unconscious biases such as androcentrism and ethnocentrism play in psychological theories?
They influence the development and interpretation of psychological theories ## Footnote Androcentrism refers to male-centered perspectives, while ethnocentrism involves evaluating other cultures based on one's own.
185
Who argued that the 'critical tradition' was difficult to follow?
Popper ## Footnote Karl Popper is known for his work in the philosophy of science, particularly regarding falsifiability.
186
What is a challenge mentioned regarding criticism in scientific theory?
It is hard to be consistently criticised ## Footnote This reflects the human tendency to defend one's own ideas and theories.
187
What natural inclination do people have regarding their theories?
People naturally wish to defend their theories ## Footnote This tendency can lead to confirmation bias, where individuals favor information that confirms their existing beliefs.
188
What term does Kuhn use to describe the current state of psychology?
Pre-paradigmatic ## Footnote Kuhn suggests that psychology has not yet established a unified framework like other sciences.
189
What was a central paradigm in psychology during the early 1900s?
The behaviourist movement ## Footnote The behaviourist movement focused on observable behaviors and was prominent before declining in influence.
190
What theory is mentioned as a potential unifying theory for psychology?
Darwin's theory of evolution ## Footnote Although Darwin's theory could unify various psychological concepts, it is not widely accepted as the central view in psychology.
191
What phenomenon has shaped the field of psychology according to the text?
Smaller crises ## Footnote These crises reflect the evolving nature of psychological theories and paradigms over time.
192
What term does Kuhn use to describe the current state of psychology?
Pre-paradigmatic ## Footnote Kuhn suggests that psychology has not yet established a unified framework like other sciences.
193
What was a central paradigm in psychology during the early 1900s?
The behaviourist movement ## Footnote The behaviourist movement focused on observable behaviors and was prominent before declining in influence.
194
What theory is mentioned as a potential unifying theory for psychology?
Darwin's theory of evolution ## Footnote Although Darwin's theory could unify various psychological concepts, it is not widely accepted as the central view in psychology.
195
What phenomenon has shaped the field of psychology according to the text?
Smaller crises ## Footnote These crises reflect the evolving nature of psychological theories and paradigms over time.
196
What is parapsychology?
The scientific study of experiences which, if they are as they seem to be, are in principle outside the realm of human capabilities as presently conceived by conventional scientists ## Footnote (Irwin & Watts, 2007)
197
What are some areas studied in parapsychology?
* Study of ghosts * Paranormal activity * Extrasensory perception
198
What is a characteristic of parapsychology research methods?
They are often extremely robust.
199
What is a potential challenge faced by researchers in parapsychology?
Fear of rebuke.
200
True or False: Einstein's theory of relativity predicted gravitational waves that could be detected immediately after its proposal.
False.
201
Fill in the blank: Parapsychology includes the study of _______.
[ghosts, paranormal activity, extrasensory perception]
202
What is a key criticism of psychoanalysis according to Popper?
Psychoanalysis is difficult to test ## Footnote Popper argues that theories should be falsifiable to be considered scientific.
203
What did Popper highlight about Adler's theory?
It is not falsifiable ## Footnote Popper's critique centered on the inability to prove Adler's theory wrong.
204
What was Adler's response to the case that did not fit his theory?
He analyzed it in terms of his theory of inferiority feelings ## Footnote Adler maintained that his extensive experience allowed him to validate his theory.
205
How did Popper challenge Adler's claim of experience?
By questioning the validity of adding a new case to his experience ## Footnote Popper remarked that Adler's assertion of experience was not a solid foundation for scientific theory.
206
What question does the text raise about psychoanalysis?
Can it be considered a science? ## Footnote This question stems from the issues of testability and falsifiability in psychoanalysis.
207
What is an important feature in science?
Replication ## Footnote Replication allows for the verification of results in scientific research.
208
What happens to psychological phenomena that do not replicate?
We tend to question the central theory ## Footnote Non-replicable phenomena lead to skepticism about the underlying theories.
209
What concept fits with questioning a central theory when replication fails?
Falsification ## Footnote Falsification is the principle that a theory must be testable and can be proven false.
210
Do practical experiments in 'hard' sciences always replicate?
No ## Footnote Even in hard sciences, replication is not guaranteed.
211
What is often blamed when replication fails in hard sciences?
The researcher ## Footnote This reflects a tendency to protect the core idea despite replication issues.
212
What concept by Kuhn is mentioned in relation to replication?
Paradigms ## Footnote Kuhn's paradigms refer to the frameworks within which scientists operate, affecting how they interpret data.
213
Fill in the blank: When psychological phenomena do not replicate, we tend to _______.
question the central theory
214
True or False: In psychology, replication failures lead to blaming the theory rather than the researcher.
False ## Footnote In psychology, replication failures often lead to questioning the theory rather than blaming the researcher.
215
What are the two broad sets of guidelines with respect to ethical behaviour in psychology?
BPS Code of ethics and conduct, BPS Code of human research ethics ## Footnote The BPS Code of ethics and conduct determines professional behaviour as a psychologist, while the BPS Code of human research ethics addresses ethical decision making when conducting research with human participants.
216
What does the BPS Code of ethics and conduct determine?
Professional behaviour as a psychologist ## Footnote This code provides a framework for psychologists to ensure their conduct meets ethical standards.
217
What does the BPS Code of human research ethics address?
Ethical decision making when planning and conducting research with human participants ## Footnote This code guides researchers in ensuring the rights and welfare of participants are protected.
218
What are Practice Guidelines in the context of psychology?
Outline general principles of behaviour for those practicing as a psychologist ## Footnote These guidelines help psychologists maintain a standard of practice that aligns with ethical norms.
219
What is a key ethical principle related to integrity?
Honesty & Accuracy ## Footnote This includes being honest and accurate in representing professional affiliations and qualifications, conveying professional conclusions and opinions, claiming ownership or credit for research.
220
List three aspects of honesty and accuracy in professional conduct.
* Representing professional affiliations and qualifications * Conveying professional conclusions and opinions * Claiming ownership or credit for research
221
What should professionals avoid to maintain ethical standards?
Avoiding Exploitation & Conflicts of Interest ## Footnote Professionals should remain aware that dual relationships may result in problems.
222
True or False: Professionals should form relationships that can impair their objectivity.
False ## Footnote Professionals should avoid forming relationships that can impair professional objectivity.
223
What is one way professionals can maintain personal boundaries?
Refrain from sexual or romantic relationships with persons to whom you are providing a professional service ## Footnote This is crucial for maintaining ethical standards in professional settings.
224
Fill in the blank: Professionals should refrain from engaging in _______.
harassment
225
What should professionals recognize regarding harassment?
Recognise all forms of harassment, single event or repeated events ## Footnote Professionals must be aware of both single occurrences and patterns of harassment.
226
How should professionals address ethical misconduct?
Addressing Ethical Misconduct ## Footnote Professionals should engage colleagues to report misconduct and bring allegations without breaches of confidentiality.
227
What is expected from professionals when they encounter misconduct?
Cooperate and engage colleagues regarding misconduct ## Footnote This includes bringing allegations of misconduct without breaching confidentiality.
228
What should participants be able to do regarding their involvement in an experiment?
Withdraw themselves or their data before, during, or after the experiment ## Footnote This ensures autonomy and respect for participants' rights.
229
What is a key requirement for participant data in research?
Anonymized ## Footnote Anonymization helps protect participant identities.
230
What type of consent should participants provide?
Informed consent ## Footnote Participants must have sufficient information to make a knowledgeable decision.
231
How should participant data be treated?
Confidentially ## Footnote This ensures that personal information is not disclosed without permission.
232
True or False: Participants can be deceived during an investigation.
False ## Footnote Participants should not be deceived unless essential for the experiment.
233
What must not be experienced by participants beyond everyday living?
Psychological or physical discomfort ## Footnote This is to protect the well-being of participants.
234
List the ethical principles mentioned in relation to participant treatment.
* Withdraw * Consent - informed * Anonymity * Confidentiality * Deception * Protection from harm ## Footnote These principles guide ethical decision-making in research.
235
What is the primary ethical standard for psychologists regarding individuals and communities?
Respect for the autonomy, privacy, and dignity of individuals and communities ## Footnote This standard emphasizes the duty of psychologists to prioritize the rights and dignity of their participants.
236
What does respect for participants in research include?
A clear duty to participants, including respect for their knowledge, insight, experience, and expertise ## Footnote Psychologists are expected to acknowledge the contributions of participants in research.
237
List some individual differences that psychologists must respect according to ethical standards.
* Age * Disability * Gender reassignment * Marriage and civil partnership * Pregnancy and maternity * Race * Religion and belief * Sex * Sexual orientation * Education * Language * Socio-economic status ## Footnote These differences are essential for ensuring ethical treatment in psychological practice.
238
True or False: Psychologists are required to respect cultural differences in their participants.
True ## Footnote Respecting cultural differences is a key component of ethical standards in psychology.
239
Fill in the blank: Psychologists have a clear duty to _______ in the research context.
participants ## Footnote This duty includes ensuring their rights and dignity are upheld.
240
What is scientific integrity?
Commitment to ensuring high-quality and accountable standards in research ## Footnote Scientific integrity emphasizes the importance of ethical standards in the research process.
241
What are ethics standards in psychology focused on?
Ensuring accountability and high quality in research ## Footnote This includes adherence to scientific design and consideration of potential risks.
242
What does quality in research primarily relate to?
The scientific design of the research ## Footnote Quality also involves considering potential risks of harm and protocols for addressing difficulties.
243
Why is transparency important in research aims?
To ensure clarity in what the research intends to achieve ## Footnote Transparency helps stakeholders understand the objectives and potential impacts of the research.
244
Fill in the blank: Ethics standards ensure that research is _______.
[accountable and of sufficiently high quality]
245
True or False: Scientific integrity is unrelated to the risks of harm in research.
False ## Footnote Scientific integrity includes considerations for potential risks of harm.
246
What is the aim of generating psychological knowledge?
To support beneficial outcomes ## Footnote Beneficial outcomes are defined as those that respect the dignity and integrity of persons and contribute to the common good.
247
How should ethical standards be defined in the context of psychology?
Ethics standards should aim to support beneficial outcomes that reflect respect for dignity and integrity ## Footnote This includes respect for individuals and groups.
248
Fill in the blank: The aim of generating psychological knowledge should be to support _______.
[beneficial outcomes]
249
True or False: Ethical standards in psychology are only concerned with individual dignity.
False ## Footnote Ethical standards also encompass collective dignity and the common good.
250
What are beneficial outcomes in the context of ethical decision-making?
Outcomes that support and reflect respect for dignity and integrity ## Footnote This includes contributions to the common good.
251
What should psychology researchers seek to maximise in their work?
The benefits of their work at all stages, from inception through to dissemination.
252
What must be avoided in research involving human participants?
Harm to research participants.
253
What should be developed and complied with when unavoidable risks arise in research?
Robust risk assessment and management protocols.
254
What is the normal expectation for the risk of harm in psychological research?
The risk of harm should be no greater than that encountered in ordinary life.
255
Fill in the blank: Researchers should not expose participants to risks greater than or additional to those to which they are exposed in their _______.
normal lifestyles.
256
Who is the key figure associated with the concept of dualism in psychology?
René Descartes ## Footnote Descartes was a French philosopher known for his influential thoughts on the relationship between mind and body.
257
What question did Descartes seek to answer regarding the mind and body?
Are the body and mind separate? ## Footnote This question relates to the philosophical inquiry about the existence of a soul distinct from the body.
258
What are the two components that Descartes separated in his theory of dualism?
* Physical matter (res extensa) * Non-material, non-extended mind (res cogitans) ## Footnote These terms describe the physical and mental aspects of existence according to Cartesian dualism.
259
What famous phrase did Descartes coin that encapsulates his philosophical stance?
Cogito ergo sum ## Footnote This translates to 'I think, therefore I am,' emphasizing the connection between thought and existence.
260
What does Descartes suggest about consciousness?
No consciousness without a body that carries it ## Footnote This implies that the mind cannot exist independently of the physical body.
261
Fill in the blank: Descartes' theory of dualism is often referred to as _______.
Cartesian dualism ## Footnote This term reflects Descartes' views on the separation of mind and body.
262
True or False: Descartes believed that knowledge was the only thing that exists.
True ## Footnote Descartes is known for his assertion that knowledge is fundamental to existence.
263
Who is the key figure associated with the concept of dualism in psychology?
René Descartes ## Footnote Descartes was a French philosopher known for his influential thoughts on the relationship between mind and body.
264
What question did Descartes seek to answer regarding the mind and body?
Are the body and mind separate? ## Footnote This question relates to the philosophical inquiry about the existence of a soul distinct from the body.
265
What are the two components that Descartes separated in his theory of dualism?
* Physical matter (res extensa) * Non-material, non-extended mind (res cogitans) ## Footnote These terms describe the physical and mental aspects of existence according to Cartesian dualism.
266
What famous phrase did Descartes coin that encapsulates his philosophical stance?
Cogito ergo sum ## Footnote This translates to 'I think, therefore I am,' emphasizing the connection between thought and existence.
267
What does Descartes suggest about consciousness?
No consciousness without a body that carries it ## Footnote This implies that the mind cannot exist independently of the physical body.
268
Fill in the blank: Descartes' theory of dualism is often referred to as _______.
Cartesian dualism ## Footnote This term reflects Descartes' views on the separation of mind and body.
269
True or False: Descartes believed that knowledge was the only thing that exists.
True ## Footnote Descartes is known for his assertion that knowledge is fundamental to existence.
270
Who wrote 'The Passions of the Soul'?
René Descartes ## Footnote Published in 1646, this work discusses the nature of emotions.
271
What are the 'animal spirits' according to Descartes?
Animal spirits are substances that connect muscles and the brain to trigger 'passions' ## Footnote Descartes believed these spirits played a role in emotional responses.
272
List some of the passions described by Descartes.
* Wonder * Love * Hatred * Desire * Joy * Sadness ## Footnote These emotions are linked to the concept of animal spirits.
273
What function does Descartes attribute to the central nervous system?
It serves as a highway for animal spirits ## Footnote This implies that the central nervous system plays a crucial role in emotion and action.
274
How do the mind and body interact according to Descartes?
Via the pineal gland in the brain ## Footnote Descartes viewed the pineal gland as the point of interaction between the mind and body.
275
What was Descartes' view of the brain?
He believed the brain to be a working machine ## Footnote This mechanical view foreshadowed later developments in psychology and neuroscience.
276
True or False: Descartes' ideas about emotions were influenced by the theory of evolution.
False ## Footnote Descartes' theories were developed before the concept of evolution was widely accepted.
277
What is the main idea of the nature vs. nurture debate?
The debate contrasts nativists, who believe in innate knowledge, with empiricists, who argue that knowledge comes from experience. ## Footnote This debate continues to influence various areas of psychology, including language acquisition.
278
Who is an example of a nativist philosopher?
Leibniz ## Footnote Leibniz argued that everyone is born with innate knowledge and that experience merely liberates ideas already present in the mind.
279
What do nativists believe about abstract concepts?
They believe it is impossible to derive abstract concepts from experience. ## Footnote Nativists hold that certain ideas are inherent and not learned from sensory experiences.
280
What is the view of empiricists regarding knowledge?
Empiricists believe that all knowledge comes from experience impacting the mind. ## Footnote Key figures include Locke, Berkeley, and Hume.
281
Which philosophers are considered empiricists?
* Locke * Berkeley * Hume ## Footnote These philosophers emphasized that sensory experience is the only true knowledge of the world.
282
What argument do empiricists present against innate ideas?
If ideas were innate, everyone should have them regardless of age or intelligence. ## Footnote This challenges the nativist position by suggesting that innate ideas cannot be universally experienced.
283
Fill in the blank: Nativists argue that experience serves only to _______.
[liberate ideas that were in the mind already]
284
True or False: The debate between nativism and empiricism is a historical issue that has been resolved.
False ## Footnote The debate continues to exist in modern psychology.
285
What is the title of Darwin's book published in 1859?
'The Origin of Species'
286
What is the basis of Darwin's theory of evolution?
Natural selection
287
What are the three principles of Darwin's evolutionary theory?
* The Principle of Variation * The Principle of Inheritance * The Principle of Adaptation
288
What does the Principle of Variation state?
All species show variation in their phenotype
289
What does the Principle of Inheritance indicate?
A part of this variation is heritable
290
What occurs according to the Principle of Adaptation?
Competition among individuals for scarce resources occurs
291
How does adaptation relate to survival?
Survival of the fittest
292
What kind of behavior do animals and human beings develop?
Adaptive behavior that is helpful for survival
293
How is the mind shaped according to Darwin's theory?
The mind is shaped by the individual's behavior in their environment
294
Fill in the blank: Phenotype is a mix of _______ and environment.
genetics
295
True or False: The Principle of Adaptation suggests that some variants allow their bearers to compete effectively.
True
296
What is psychophysics?
Study of the relationship between incoming physical (sensory) stimuli and people's responses to or experiences of them. ## Footnote Focuses on how individuals respond to stimuli rather than the stimuli themselves.
297
Who wrote 'Elements of Psychophysics'?
Fechner ## Footnote Fechner lived from 1801 to 1887 and is considered a key figure in the beginnings of psychology.
298
What year was 'Elements of Psychophysics' published?
1860
299
What does Fechner's Law state?
Sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity. ## Footnote This law suggests that as stimulus intensity increases, more of it is needed to detect a change.
300
In Fechner's Law, what happens to sensation as stimulus intensity increases?
More is needed to detect a change.
301
What was Fechner's goal in his research?
To discover a mathematical relationship between items.
302
What is a significant application of psychophysics?
Used in consumer behaviors.
303
True or False: Psychophysics focuses on how stimuli change rather than how people respond to them.
False
304
Fill in the blank: Psychophysics is the study of the relationship between _______ and people's responses.
[incoming physical (sensory) stimuli]
305
Who was Ebbinghaus?
A pioneer in the study of memory and learning ## Footnote Ebbinghaus conducted significant research on memory using himself as the subject.
306
What years did Ebbinghaus conduct his initial memory studies?
1879-1880 ## Footnote He later replicated the procedure from 1883-1884.
307
What did Ebbinghaus produce for his studies?
Nonsense syllables ## Footnote This helped him analyze memory without the influence of existing knowledge.
308
What concept did Ebbinghaus introduce related to learning?
'Learning to criterion' ## Footnote This concept refers to the idea of learning until a certain standard or criterion is met.
309
What are the two key curves Ebbinghaus is known for?
Learning curve and forgetting curve ## Footnote These curves illustrate how information is acquired and lost over time.
310
What does the primacy effect refer to?
The tendency to remember the first items on a list ## Footnote This effect is part of the broader study of memory recall.
311
What does the recency effect refer to?
The tendency to remember the last items on a list ## Footnote Together with the primacy effect, it explains how items are recalled differently based on their position.
312
Fill in the blank: Ebbinghaus is known for studying _______.
memory and learning ## Footnote His research laid the groundwork for modern psychology.
313
True or False: Ebbinghaus only studied memory for a few months.
False ## Footnote He gathered data for more than a year.
314
Who was among the first to conduct studies of memory and learning?
Ebbinghaus
315
What was the time period during which Ebbinghaus gathered data for his studies?
1879-1880
316
What did Ebbinghaus replicate between 1883 and 1884?
The entire procedure of his memory studies
317
What type of syllables did Ebbinghaus produce for his studies?
Nonsense syllables
318
What concept did Ebbinghaus introduce that refers to achieving a specific level of learning?
'Learning to criterion'
319
What are the two types of curves introduced by Ebbinghaus?
Learning curve and forgetting curve
320
What does the term 'primacy effect' refer to?
The tendency to remember the first items on a list
321
What does the term 'recency effect' refer to?
The tendency to remember the last items on a list
322
Fill in the blank: Ebbinghaus's studies showed that the _______ and _______ effects influence memory.
Primacy and recency
323
True or False: Ebbinghaus's studies indicated that the middle items on a list are typically remembered better than the first and last items.
False
324
Who opened the first laboratory of Experimental Psychology?
Wundt in 1879 at Leipzig University
325
What journal did Wundt found that was the world's first devoted to Experimental Psychology?
'Philosophische Studien' ('Philosophical Studies')
326
What was the aim of Experimental Psychology according to Wundt?
To systematically vary the stimuli and conditions that elicited different mental states
327
What method did Wundt use to analyze conscious experience?
Introspection
328
Who were the subjects used in Wundt's introspection method?
Only trained, advanced Psychology students
329
True or False: Wundt's methods are considered objective by today's standards.
False
330
Fill in the blank: Wundt is alleged to be the first to call himself a _______.
[psychologist]
331
What is a limitation of introspection as a method in psychology?
Different observers can provide different responses to the same stimuli
332
In what year did Wundt establish his laboratory?
1879
333
What is one criticism of Wundt's introspection method?
Methods perhaps too subjective by today's standards
334
Who was Titchener?
A student of Wundt and a key figure in structuralism ## Footnote Titchener studied under Wundt from 1890 to 1892.
335
What did Titchener believe about psychological phenomena?
They are composed of mental elements.
336
What was Titchener's view on the role of the experimental psychologist?
'The experimental psychologist should unravel the elemental processes from the tangle of experience' (Titchener, 1898).
337
List the three important tasks of structuralism.
* Discover how many processes there were * Identify the elements of these processes * Explain how they work together.
338
How did Titchener relate sensations to elements?
He likened sensations to structures, similar to elements in chemistry.
339
What was one of Titchener's goals regarding the mind?
To analyze the laws governing the connections between the elements of the mind.
340
What connection did Titchener aim to evaluate?
The connections between the mind and the nervous system.
341
Who was Titchener's first PhD student?
Margaret Floy Washburn.
342
What is significant about Margaret Floy Washburn?
She was the first woman to receive a PhD in psychology (1894).
343
What are the three mental components of conscious experience according to Titchener?
* Sensations (discernments) * Images (thoughts) * Affections (emotions) ## Footnote Titchener's theory emphasizes these components as fundamental to understanding consciousness.
344
What aspects can vary for each sensation?
* Quality * Intensity * Duration * Clearness ## Footnote These aspects define how sensations are experienced and perceived.
345
Define 'Quality' in the context of sensations.
Distinguishing elements from one another ## Footnote Quality helps to identify different sensations.
346
Define 'Intensity' in relation to sensations.
How strong/bright/loud a stimulus is ## Footnote Intensity measures the strength of a sensation.
347
What does 'Duration' refer to in the study of sensations?
How long a sensation lasts ## Footnote Duration indicates the temporal aspect of a sensation.
348
What is meant by 'Clearness' in the context of consciousness?
Attention in consciousness ## Footnote Clearness is related to how focused a sensation is in one's awareness.
349
What does functionalism focus on in psychology?
Dynamic purposes of psychological experience rather than its structure ## Footnote Functionalism emphasizes the functions and processes of mental states.
350
Who heavily influenced functionalism?
Darwin ## Footnote Darwin's theories on evolution and adaptation influenced the understanding of psychological phenomena.
351
How are psychological phenomena viewed in functionalism?
They are not isolated from the environment; they are influenced and interrelated by changing behaviour in a complex environment ## Footnote This perspective emphasizes the context in which psychological processes occur.
352
What is the title of the highly influential book written by William James?
The Principles of Psychology ## Footnote Published in 1890, this work laid foundational concepts for psychology.
353
How did William James describe psychology?
As the science of mental life ## Footnote This definition encompasses both conscious and unconscious processes.
354
Fill in the blank: Functionalism is largely concerned with the _______ of psychological experience.
dynamic purposes ## Footnote This highlights the functional aspect of mental processes.
355
True or False: Functionalism views psychological phenomena as isolated from their environment.
False ## Footnote Functionalism emphasizes the connection between psychological phenomena and their environmental context.
356
Who proposed the theory of emotion that suggests behavior produces changes in our conscious experience?
William James
357
What are the three steps to experience emotions according to James?
* Perception of a stimulus/situation * Bodily changes result from the perception of a situation * Recognition of the bodily changes produce subjective feelings/emotions
358
True or False: James believed that knowledge serves a purely theoretical purpose.
False
359
Fill in the blank: James believed that knowledge serves a _______ purpose.
pragmatic
360
What does pragmatic knowledge develop according to James?
A cohesive understanding of life
361
Who described the concept of classical conditioning?
Pavlov ## Footnote Pavlov's work in 1903 laid the foundation for classical conditioning.
362
What is the definition of classical conditioning?
A neutral stimulus associated with an unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that causes a conditioned response ## Footnote This process involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response.
363
Who described the concept of operant conditioning?
Thorndike ## Footnote Thorndike's theories emerged in 1898 and 1911.
364
What is the Law of Effect?
Learning that our behaviours may be associated with consequences ## Footnote This principle states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are likely to be repeated.
365
What happens when positive consequences are associated with a behavior?
The behavior is more likely to occur in the future ## Footnote Positive reinforcement strengthens the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
366
What happens when negative consequences are associated with a behavior?
The behavior is avoided in the future ## Footnote Negative reinforcement or punishment leads to a decrease in the occurrence of a behavior.
367
Fill in the blank: A neutral stimulus associated with an unconditioned stimulus becomes a _______.
conditioned stimulus ## Footnote This transformation is key to classical conditioning.
368
True or False: Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both learning processes.
True ## Footnote Both concepts explain how behaviors are learned and modified.
369
What are the three main features of the behaviourist manifesto?
* Psychology must be objective and exclude subjective data and interpretations. * To predict and control overt behaviour rather than describe and explain conscious mental states. * Remove distinction between humans and non-human animals.
370
According to behaviourism, what should psychology focus on?
Psychology should focus on predicting and controlling overt behaviour.
371
True or False: Behaviourism maintains that there is a significant distinction between humans and non-human animals.
False
372
Fill in the blank: Behaviourism argues that humans are a more complex form of _______.
behaviour seen in other species.
373
What does the behaviourist manifesto suggest about subjective data?
It must be excluded from psychology.
374
What concept did Watson famously conduct related to child development?
'Little Albert' concept ## Footnote This experiment demonstrated classical conditioning in children.
375
According to Watson, how is behavior defined?
Behavior is a 'reflex' to our environment ## Footnote This suggests that behavior is influenced by external stimuli.
376
What does conditioning allow us to do, according to the text?
Conditioning could be generalised ## Footnote This means that learned behaviors can apply to similar situations.
377
What does the text suggest about children in relation to their experiences?
Children are a product of their experiences ## Footnote This implies that environmental factors play a significant role in development.
378
What did Watson argue regarding shaping children's futures?
Could shape any child to become; doctor, lawyer, artist etc ## Footnote This reflects the belief in the power of conditioning to influence career paths.
379
Who is the founder of Psychoanalytic Theory?
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) ## Footnote Freud's work laid the foundation for the field of psychology as we know it today.
380
What is the main focus of Psychoanalytic Theory?
Importance of unconscious mental processes ## Footnote This theory emphasizes how unconscious thoughts shape feelings, thoughts, and behaviors.
381
What does psychoanalysis aim to achieve?
Bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness ## Footnote This process helps individuals better understand psychological disorders.
382
Psychoanalysis is primarily a _______ approach.
[therapeutic] ## Footnote It is utilized to treat psychological issues by analyzing unconscious thoughts.
383
What type of patients did Freud primarily observe?
Patients suffering with hysteria ## Footnote One notable patient was 'Anna', who contributed to Freud's theories.
384
What motivates much of our behavior according to psychodynamic theory?
Inner and unconscious forces, memories, and conflicts ## Footnote These elements are often beyond a person's awareness or control.
385
Define 'Preconscious' in psychodynamic theory.
Can be brought into conscious thought ## Footnote This contrasts with the unconscious, which cannot be accessed directly.
386
Define 'Unconscious' in psychodynamic theory.
Cannot be brought into conscious thought ## Footnote It contains thoughts and feelings that are not accessible to awareness.
387
What techniques can help bring thoughts and feelings into consciousness?
Special techniques such as: * Free association * Dream interpretation * Transference ## Footnote These methods are used in psychodynamic therapy.
388
What is the impact of early experience according to psychodynamic theory?
Highly influential on later personality ## Footnote Early experiences shape the development of personality traits.
389
Is the psychodynamic approach synonymous with psychoanalytic theory?
No, they are not synonymous ## Footnote They represent different aspects of psychological understanding.
390
What does the 'ID' represent in psychodynamic theory?
Unconscious and impulsive, pleasure-seeking part of the brain ## Footnote The ID operates on the pleasure principle.
391
What is the role of the 'Ego' in psychodynamic theory?
Conscious and mediates between the ID and superego ## Footnote The Ego functions according to the reality principle.
392
What does the 'Super-Ego' represent?
The morally correct part of the mind ## Footnote It deals with consciousness and upholding values.
393
What motivates much of our behavior according to psychodynamic theory?
Inner and unconscious forces, memories, and conflicts ## Footnote These elements are often beyond a person's awareness or control.
394
Define 'Preconscious' in psychodynamic theory.
Can be brought into conscious thought ## Footnote This contrasts with the unconscious, which cannot be accessed directly.
395
Define 'Unconscious' in psychodynamic theory.
Cannot be brought into conscious thought ## Footnote It contains thoughts and feelings that are not accessible to awareness.
396
What techniques can help bring thoughts and feelings into consciousness?
Special techniques such as: * Free association * Dream interpretation * Transference ## Footnote These methods are used in psychodynamic therapy.
397
What is the impact of early experience according to psychodynamic theory?
Highly influential on later personality ## Footnote Early experiences shape the development of personality traits.
398
Is the psychodynamic approach synonymous with psychoanalytic theory?
No, they are not synonymous ## Footnote They represent different aspects of psychological understanding.
399
What does the 'ID' represent in psychodynamic theory?
Unconscious and impulsive, pleasure-seeking part of the brain ## Footnote The ID operates on the pleasure principle.
400
What is the role of the 'Ego' in psychodynamic theory?
Conscious and mediates between the ID and superego ## Footnote The Ego functions according to the reality principle.
401
What does the 'Super-Ego' represent?
The morally correct part of the mind ## Footnote It deals with consciousness and upholding values.
402
Who founded Gestalt Psychology?
Wertheimer, Kohler, and Koffka ## Footnote Founded in Germany in 1912.
403
What is the fundamental assumption of Gestalt Psychology?
The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
404
What are some meanings of the term 'Gestalt'?
* Form * Shape * Essence * Manner
405
True or False: In Gestalt Psychology, the whole is considered to be the same as the sum of its parts.
False
406
Fill in the blank: The whole is ______ than the sum of its parts.
greater
407
Who was the first black man to receive a PhD in Psychology?
Francis Cecil Sumner ## Footnote Francis Cecil Sumner earned his PhD in 1920.
408
In what year did Francis Cecil Sumner receive his PhD?
1920 ## Footnote Sumner's accomplishment marked a significant milestone in psychology.
409
What was Francis Cecil Sumner's primary area of interest?
Understanding and eliminating racial bias in the administration of justice ## Footnote His work focused on social justice and psychology.
410
What types of publications did Francis Cecil Sumner contribute to?
Wrote abstracts for the Journal of Social Psychology and the Psychological Bulletin ## Footnote His contributions helped advance the field of psychology.
411
Who is Gordon Allport?
An important figure in the development and measurement of personality traits.
412
What is Allport's discrimination scale?
A measure developed by Allport to assess personality traits.
413
What is the title of Allport's published work?
Personality: A Psychological Interpretation.
414
Define personality according to Allport.
Objective self, fundamental adjustment patterns that an individual forms over the course of their experience.
415
How does Allport view an individual's personality?
As a unique combination of traits.
416
What is a trait?
A relatively stable disposition to behave in a particular and consistent way.
417
What does Allport believe traits are?
Pre-existing dispositions that reliably trigger behavior.
418
What is the Zone of Proximal Development?
The difference between a child's learning progress with help or guidance and the child's learning achievement without guidance of an adult.
419
Who is associated with the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development?
Vygotsky (1896-1934)
420
What role does speech play according to Vygotsky?
Speech is a mediator between an individual and the outside world.
421
How does language affect psychological development according to Vygotsky?
Language is used to change both the external and 'internal' psychological world.
422
What type of methods did Vygotsky use in his research?
Observational methods.
423
Fill in the blank: The Zone of Proximal Development indicates what a learner can do with _______.
[guidance]
424
Fill in the blank: The Zone of Proximal Development indicates what a learner can do unaided, what a learner cannot do, and _______.
[what a learner can do with guidance]
425
What is the Zone of Proximal Development?
The difference between a child's learning progress with help or guidance and the child's learning achievement without guidance of an adult.
426
Who is associated with the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development?
Vygotsky (1896-1934)
427
What role does speech play according to Vygotsky?
Speech is a mediator between an individual and the outside world.
428
How does language affect psychological development according to Vygotsky?
Language is used to change both the external and 'internal' psychological world.
429
What type of methods did Vygotsky use in his research?
Observational methods.
430
Fill in the blank: The Zone of Proximal Development indicates what a learner can do with _______.
[guidance]
431
Fill in the blank: The Zone of Proximal Development indicates what a learner can do unaided, what a learner cannot do, and _______.
[what a learner can do with guidance]
432
Who is associated with the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development?
Vygotsky (1896-1934) ## Footnote Vygotsky's work emphasizes the importance of social interactions in learning.
433
What is the Zone of Proximal Development?
The difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can do with guidance ## Footnote This concept highlights the potential for learning with appropriate support.
434
What is one way to assist learners through the Zone of Proximal Development?
Present learner with a more knowledgeable other ## Footnote This method encourages learning through observation and guidance.
435
What role do social interactions play in the Zone of Proximal Development?
They allow the learner to observe and practice skills with a tutor ## Footnote Social interactions facilitate the learning process by providing real-time feedback.
436
What is scaffolding in the context of education?
Providing supportive activities as learners are guided through the Zone of Proximal Development ## Footnote Scaffolding helps to build independence in learners gradually.
437
Fill in the blank: The Zone of Proximal Development emphasizes the importance of _______ in learning.
social interactions ## Footnote These interactions are crucial for effective learning and skill acquisition.
438
True or False: Scaffolding is a one-time support method.
False ## Footnote Scaffolding is an ongoing process that adapts to the learner's needs.
439
What is the primary focus of Vygotsky's theory?
The interaction between social context and cognitive development ## Footnote Vygotsky believed that learning is inherently social.
440
Who is the psychologist associated with the theory of cognitive development?
Jean Piaget
441
What is the key idea of Piaget's theory regarding children's cognitive processes?
Children's cognitive processes differ from that of adults
442
According to Piaget, what determines the stages of cognitive development?
The child's developing brain, skills, and social environment
443
What is the term for the process of adopting new objects into old mental patterns?
Assimilation
444
What is the term for modifying one's mental structures to fit new demands of the environment?
Accommodation
445
Fill in the blank: Human development is a process of _______ involving adaptation.
adaptation
446
True or False: Piaget believed that cognitive development occurs in a linear fashion.
False
447
What are the two main processes involved in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?
* Assimilation * Accommodation
448
What did Piaget (1896-1980) assert about children's cognitive processes?
Children's cognitive processes differ from that of adults ## Footnote Piaget emphasized the distinct ways children think compared to adults.
449
What determines the stages of cognitive development according to Piaget?
The child's developing brain, skills, and social environment ## Footnote Piaget believed that cognitive development is not uniform but varies based on these factors.
450
What is assimilation in the context of cognitive development?
Adopt new objects into old mental patterns ## Footnote Assimilation helps children integrate new experiences using existing cognitive frameworks.
451
What is accommodation in cognitive development?
Modify one's mental structures to fit new demands of the environment ## Footnote Accommodation allows for the adjustment of cognitive schemas when encountering new information.
452
Fill in the blank: According to Piaget, human development is a process of _______.
adaptation ## Footnote Adaptation involves both assimilation and accommodation to understand the world.
453
What is humanistic psychology?
A theoretical and practical field in psychology concerned with an individual's uniqueness ## Footnote It emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization.
454
What is referred to as the 'third force' in psychology?
'Third force' refers to humanistic psychology, which follows behaviorism and psychodynamic approaches ## Footnote It emerged in response to the limitations of the first two forces.
455
How is the psychodynamic approach viewed in relation to humanistic psychology?
Psychodynamic approach is seen as pessimistic ## Footnote Humanistic psychology focuses on positive aspects of human nature.
456
How is the behaviorist approach viewed in relation to humanistic psychology?
Behaviorist approach is seen as too passive/robotic ## Footnote Humanistic psychology emphasizes active human experience.
457
What concerns does humanistic psychology address?
Concerns over the loss of essence of human existence ## Footnote It seeks to reclaim the uniqueness and value of individuals.
458
When was humanistic psychology formally recognized by the APA?
1971 ## Footnote This recognition marked a significant milestone in the field.
459
What type of methodologies does humanistic psychology favor?
Qualitative methodologies, specifically a phenomenological approach ## Footnote This approach focuses on individuals' subjective experiences.
460
Who is the author of 'Man's Search for Meaning'?
Viktor E. Frankl ## Footnote Viktor Frankl is a prominent figure in psychology and is known for his contributions to humanistic psychology.
461
What type of theory did Viktor E. Frankl develop?
Humanistic theory of behaviour ## Footnote This theory emphasizes the inherent value and agency of individuals.
462
According to Frankl, what is the primary motivation for life?
Finding meaning ## Footnote Frankl posits that the search for meaning is fundamental to human existence.
463
True or False: Frankl believes that life has meaning only in certain circumstances.
False ## Footnote Frankl asserts that life has meaning under all circumstances.
464
What freedom do individuals have according to Frankl's theory?
Freedom to find meaning in what we do ## Footnote This freedom is crucial for personal fulfillment and purpose.
465
In what context did Viktor Frankl develop his theory?
During time in the Nazi concentration camps ## Footnote Frankl's experiences in the camps significantly shaped his understanding of meaning.
466
What does Frankl mean by 'Man's Search for Meaning'?
It is the primary motivation in life, not a secondary rationalization of instinctual drives ## Footnote Frankl emphasizes that each person's search for meaning is unique and essential.
467
According to Frankl, what must a person's meaning achieve?
It must be fulfilled by him alone ## Footnote This personal fulfillment is crucial for one's will to meaning.
468
Fill in the blank: Man, however, is able to live and even to die for the sake of his _______.
ideals and values ## Footnote Frankl highlights the significance of personal ideals in one's search for meaning.
469
What is self-actualization?
Achieving one's full potential, including creative activities ## Footnote Self-actualization is often considered the highest level of psychological development in Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
470
What are esteem needs?
Prestige and feeling of accomplishment ## Footnote Esteem needs are part of Maslow's hierarchy and are important for self-esteem and personal worth.
471
What do belongingness and love needs encompass?
Intimate relationships and friends ## Footnote These needs are crucial for emotional well-being and social connections.
472
What are safety needs?
Security and safety ## Footnote Safety needs include physical safety as well as financial and health security.
473
What are physiological needs?
Food, water, warmth, rest ## Footnote These are the basic requirements for human survival and must be met first.
474
Fill in the blank: Self-fulfillment needs are part of _______.
[psychological needs] ## Footnote Self-fulfillment needs refer to the desire to realize one's potential and seek personal growth.
475
What are basic needs according to Maslow's hierarchy?
Physiological needs and safety needs ## Footnote Basic needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs can be addressed.
476
What is Social Psychology?
The study of the causes and consequences of interpersonal behaviour. ## Footnote Social psychology examines how individuals influence and are influenced by others.
477
Who were some early theorists in Social Psychology?
Le Bon, McDougall, Tarde ## Footnote These theorists believed in the instinctual nature of social behaviour.
478
What significant finding did Triplett demonstrate in 1898?
People perform tasks differently when they are in groups than when they have to perform alone. ## Footnote Triplett's research involved swimmers and cyclists.
479
True or False: Early theories of Social Psychology emphasized learned behavior over instinctual behavior.
False ## Footnote Early theories believed in the instinctual nature of social behaviour.
480
Fill in the blank: Social Psychology studies the _______ and consequences of interpersonal behaviour.
causes ## Footnote This highlights the focus on understanding why individuals behave in social contexts.
481
What is a key concept studied in social psychology?
Conformity ## Footnote Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms.
482
What experiment is associated with Asch in 1955?
The line judgement studies ## Footnote These studies examined how individuals conform to group opinions even when they are incorrect.
483
What is the main focus of Milgram's 1963 experiments?
Obedience ## Footnote Milgram's experiments demonstrated how far individuals would go in obeying authority figures, even to the point of causing harm to others.
484
Fill in the blank: The line judgement studies were conducted by _______.
Asch
485
Fill in the blank: The shock experiments were conducted by _______.
Milgram
486
True or False: The line judgement studies focused on obedience.
False ## Footnote The line judgement studies focused on conformity, not obedience.
487
What psychological phenomenon does Milgram's experiment illustrate?
The conflict between personal conscience and obedience to authority ## Footnote Milgram's findings revealed the extent to which individuals are willing to comply with authority, even against their moral beliefs.
488
What is cognitive psychology?
The scientific study of human mental processes and their role in thinking, emotions, and behaviour. ## Footnote Cognitive psychology focuses on understanding how people perceive, remember, think, and learn.
489
What is the origin of the term 'cognitive'?
From the Latin word 'Cognoscere', meaning 'to know'. ## Footnote This origin reflects the focus of cognitive psychology on knowledge and understanding.
490
What was the cognitive revolution?
A shift from primarily behavioural to cognitive psychology in the late 1950s to 1970s. ## Footnote This period marked significant advancements in understanding mental processes.
491
What is a major criticism of behaviourism?
It ignores concepts relating to cognition. ## Footnote Behaviourism focuses solely on observable behaviours, neglecting internal mental states.
492
What is Miller's 'magic number'?
7 +/- 2 ## Footnote Refers to the capacity limit of working memory as proposed by George A. Miller in 1956.
493
Who wrote 'Plans and Structures of Behaviour'?
Miller et al. ## Footnote This book was published in 1960 and is significant in the field of cognitive psychology.
494
What assumption does cognitive psychology make about mental life?
Mental life = information processing ## Footnote This assumption suggests that human cognition can be understood as a series of information processing activities.
495
How does cognitive psychology view human beings?
As complex computing devices ## Footnote This analogy emphasizes the intricate nature of human cognitive functions.
496
What can any psychological process be explained as, according to cognitive psychology?
Information processing based on a specific set of instructions or programs ## Footnote This perspective allows for a structured approach to understanding psychological phenomena.
497
What is the 'Test-operate-test-exit' model?
A process that describes how individuals manage psychological operations ## Footnote This model highlights the iterative nature of cognitive processes.
498
What is the heritability range of antisocial behavior according to Raine (2013)?
40-60% ## Footnote This indicates that genetics play a significant role in antisocial behavior.
499
What are gene-environment interactions?
Behaviors can have a genetic basis but are only expressed depending on environmental factors ## Footnote This suggests that both genetics and environment influence behavior.
500
Which gene moderates the effect of maltreatment on antisocial behavior?
Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) ## Footnote The MAOA gene is linked to the regulation of neurotransmitters that may affect behavior.
501
How does the MAOA gene affect individuals with low vs. high MAOA?
The relationship is stronger for individuals with low MAOA than high ## Footnote This implies that those with low MAOA are more susceptible to the effects of maltreatment.

Psychology (5 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2025 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions