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Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

What is Psychology?

A

Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behaviour.

(Schacter, Gilbert, Wegner and Hood, 2012, p. 6)

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2
Q

What does ‘Mind’ refer to in psychology?

A

Mind is our internal experience.

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3
Q

What does ‘Behaviour’ refer to in psychology?

A

Behaviour is our observable actions.

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4
Q

What is Biological Psychology?

A

Explores how our biology interacts with psychological processes

This field examines the connection between biological factors and mental processes.

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5
Q

What does Cognitive Psychology study?

A

The study of mental processes, ‘thinking’ and problem solving

Cognitive psychology focuses on how we perceive, remember, and think about information.

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6
Q

What is the focus of Developmental Psychology?

A

Study of how psychological processes change over time

This field investigates psychological growth and change from infancy to adulthood.

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7
Q

What does Personality and Individual Differences examine?

A

The study of personality and how psychological processes vary from one person to the next

It looks at traits, behaviors, and characteristics that make individuals unique.

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8
Q

What is the main focus of Social Psychology?

A

Explores the psychological processes that operate when we interact with others

This field studies how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual or imagined presence of others.

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9
Q

What does the wide range of approaches in Psychology imply?

A

There is no right or wrong approach

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10
Q

What are the approaches in Psychology considered as?

A

Lenses through which we make sense of phenomena

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11
Q

Are the approaches in Psychology exclusive?

A

No, several lenses can be applied to the same topic

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12
Q

Name a key topic that can be studied from multiple psychological approaches.

A

Memory

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13
Q

What biological aspect can be explored in Psychology?

A

Biology

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14
Q

What underlying aspect does Psychology examine?

A

Underlying Processes

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15
Q

What developmental changes are explored in Psychology?

A

Development in kids/deterioration in old age

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16
Q

What factor does Psychology consider when examining performance differences?

A

Social influences

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17
Q

What is psychology?

A

The scientific study of mind and behaviour.

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18
Q

What is a pivotal question in psychology?

A

How we move our discipline forward.

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19
Q

How do psychologists advance their discipline?

A

By asking questions and addressing them using scientific methods.

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20
Q

What do psychologists develop to explore theories?

A

Theories.

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21
Q

What methods do psychologists use to develop theories?

A

Via observation and using previous literature.

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22
Q

Fill in the blank: Psychologists develop questions to explore _______.

A

[theory]

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23
Q

What is the definition of Psychology?

A

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Psychology encompasses various aspects of human experience, including thoughts, emotions, and actions.

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24
Q

What is a Theory in Psychology?

A

A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world.

Theories are based on a body of evidence and can be used to predict future occurrences.

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25
Q

What is a Hypothesis?

A

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

Hypotheses are often formulated based on theories and are tested through research.

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26
Q

What does it mean when a Hypothesis is supported?

A

Evidence gathered from testing indicates that the hypothesis is likely true.

This often leads to further testing and refinement of the theory.

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27
Q

What does it mean when a Hypothesis is rejected?

A

Evidence gathered from testing indicates that the hypothesis is likely false.

Rejection of a hypothesis can lead to the modification of the original theory.

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28
Q

What is the process that allows us to move forward in our understanding in Psychology?

A

The iterative process of forming a hypothesis, testing it, and refining theories based on the results.

This scientific method is crucial for advancing psychological research.

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29
Q

What influences the development of research questions?

A

The real world and academic literature

Both aspects guide researchers in formulating their inquiries.

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30
Q

What is the first stage of any research project?

A

To review the academic literature and begin to develop a theory

This stage is crucial for understanding existing knowledge and forming a basis for new research.

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31
Q

What purpose does academic literature serve in research?

A

It helps address real world problems

Academic literature provides insights and frameworks that can be applied to practical issues.

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32
Q

Fill in the blank: The first stage of any research project is to _______.

A

[review the academic literature and begin to develop a theory]

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33
Q

True or False: Academic literature is irrelevant when developing research questions.

A

False

Academic literature plays a significant role in shaping research inquiries.

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34
Q

What is psychology?

A

Psychology is a scientific discipline

Psychology focuses on understanding the mind and behavior.

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35
Q

What is the primary focus of psychology?

A

To devise theories and ask questions to help us understand the mind and behavior

This focus enables the development of a deeper understanding of psychological processes.

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36
Q

How do conclusions in psychology influence future research?

A

Conclusions guide future research and can be applied to real-world problems

This application can lead to practical solutions in various fields.

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37
Q

Are theories in psychology considered facts?

A

No, theories are not facts and are open to being questioned

This characteristic allows for the continuous evolution of psychological understanding.

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38
Q

What impact can psychology have on society?

A

Psychology can massively impact our world and help better society

This impact can manifest in various forms, including mental health improvements and social interventions.

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39
Q

What role do individuals play in the process of psychology?

A

Individuals are part of the process of psychological inquiry and development

This involvement underscores the collaborative nature of psychological research.

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40
Q

What are constructs in psychology?

A

Constructs are broad terms for a complicated collection of internal processes and behaviors

Constructs represent tendencies to think, feel, and act in certain ways, but not consistently.

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41
Q

Can psychological constructs be directly observed?

A

No, psychological constructs cannot be directly observed

They often represent internal processes such as thoughts and feelings.

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42
Q

Give an example of a psychological construct.

A

Extraversion

Extraverts may be outgoing but can also be quiet in certain situations, like lectures.

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43
Q

What challenges are associated with measuring emotional states?

A

Emotional states cannot be measured with a ruler

This highlights the complexity of psychological constructs.

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44
Q

How do personality characteristics relate to constructs?

A

Personality characteristics are not always expressed the same way

This variability complicates the observation of constructs.

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45
Q

Fill in the blank: Psychological constructs often include internal processes such as _______.

A

thoughts and feelings

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46
Q

True or False: Constructs always represent consistent behaviors.

A

False

Constructs indicate tendencies that may not be expressed all the time.

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47
Q

What is a challenge in observing attitudes towards crime and punishment?

A

They are difficult to observe

This emphasizes the complexity of psychological constructs.

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48
Q

What is the importance of clarity when developing a question?

A

It is important to be clear about what we are exploring.

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49
Q

Define Operational Definition.

A

Description of an abstract property in terms of a concrete condition that can be measured.

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50
Q

What do Watson and Clark argue about Extraversion?

A

Positive emotionality should be seen as the core of Extraversion with a high degree of sociability.

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51
Q

According to McCrea and John, what traits are associated with Extraversion?

A

Dominant, talkative, sociable, and warm.

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52
Q

Fill in the blank: An Operational Definition is a description of an abstract property in terms of a _______.

A

[concrete condition that can be measured]

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53
Q

True or False: It is unnecessary to operationalise terms when developing a question.

A

False

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54
Q

What is the preferred source for developing questions?

A

Academic literature

Academic literature provides more specialized definitions than dictionaries.

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55
Q

Why are dictionary definitions considered less preferable in developing questions?

A

They are not specialized

Dictionary definitions may lack the depth and context needed for academic purposes.

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56
Q

What is the first step in developing a question?

A

Identifying key behaviours and constructs

This includes having clear definitions of what is being explored.

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57
Q

What should be considered when thinking about questions?

A

The underlying questions

It’s important to ensure that the questions are relevant and meaningful.

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58
Q

True or False: ‘Fraud increasing’ is an acceptable question.

A

False

This statement lacks depth and specificity for a research question.

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59
Q

What might you need to do if you can’t find a suitable question?

A

Move away from your original observation/news story

This allows for broader exploration of related topics.

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60
Q

What is a critical aspect to identify in developing a question?

A

The underlying psychological question of interest

Understanding the psychological aspect is crucial for framing effective questions.

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61
Q

Fill in the blank: Once we have started to identify the key behaviours and constructs, we can start to think about our _______.

A

[questions]

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62
Q

What is a theory?

A

‘Hypothetical account of how and why a phenomenon occurs, usually in the form of a statement about the causal relationship between 2 or more properties’ Schacter et al. (2020, p. 48)

Theories serve to explain various phenomena and can guide further research.

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63
Q

What is a rationale in the context of developing theories?

A

A reason as to why we believe a theory to be the case

Rationales become more important as you progress through the course and expand your RDA knowledge.

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64
Q

What is the first step in developing theories after forming a question?

A

To start developing theories

This process involves hypothesizing causal relationships based on the question posed.

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65
Q

Fill in the blank: A theory is a _______ account of how and why a phenomenon occurs.

A

hypothetical

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66
Q

True or False: Rationales are not important in the development of theories.

A

False

Rationales become increasingly important as knowledge expands.

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67
Q

What factors inform the approaches we take in psychology?

A

The types of questions we ask

Different questions lead to different psychological approaches.

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68
Q

What does the cognitive perspective in psychology explore?

A

The processes behind decision making and how to change these

This perspective focuses on mental processes.

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69
Q

What is the focus of the personality approach in psychology?

A

Traits approach, considered more static and therefore less subject to change

This approach looks at stable characteristics of individuals.

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70
Q

What does the social approach in psychology examine?

A

How others influence our decisions

It includes the study of peer influence.

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71
Q

True or False: The same topics in psychology can only be approached in one way.

A

False

The same topics can be approached in very different ways.

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72
Q

What philosophical group is associated with Logical Positivism?

A

Vienna Circle

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73
Q

What does Logical Positivism propose regarding ideas?

A

Outlining if an idea was meaningful or if it was nonsense

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74
Q

What are the two main types of statements according to Logical Positivism?

A
  • Definitions
  • Verifiable empirical statements
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75
Q

Give an example of a definition that is meaningfully true.

A

A triangle has three sides

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76
Q

What is an example of a verifiable empirical statement?

A

Eating cheese before bed gives you nightmares

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77
Q

According to Logical Positivism, when are statements considered meaningful?

A

If they could be verifiable

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78
Q

What philosophical group is associated with Logical Positivism?

A

Vienna Circle

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79
Q

What does Logical Positivism propose regarding ideas?

A

Outlining if an idea was meaningful or if it was nonsense

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80
Q

What are the two main types of statements according to Logical Positivism?

A
  • Definitions
  • Verifiable empirical statements
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81
Q

Give an example of a definition that is meaningfully true.

A

A triangle has three sides

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82
Q

What is an example of a verifiable empirical statement?

A

Eating cheese before bed gives you nightmares

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83
Q

According to Logical Positivism, when are statements considered meaningful?

A

If they could be verifiable

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84
Q

What is systematic empiricism?

A

‘The practice of relying on observation.’

Stanovich, 2013, p. 9

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85
Q

What does the term ‘empirical’ suggest?

A

Facts are derived by observation and experience as opposed to theory.

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86
Q

What is the Greek origin of the word ‘empirical’?

A

It comes from the Greek ‘emperos’.

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87
Q

How can science be viewed when combined with logical positivism?

A

As a series of logical states that could be observed and verified.

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88
Q

Fill in the blank: All swans are _______.

A

white

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89
Q

What is the main problem with logical positivism?

A

Scaling

Logical positivism struggles with generalizing individual observations to broader claims.

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90
Q

What is an example of verifiable information at an individual level?

A

Georgia the swan is white

This statement can be observed and verified directly.

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91
Q

What is the problem with generalization in logical positivism?

A

Cannot easily verify general claims

General claims, such as ‘all swans are white’, cannot be readily verified through observation.

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92
Q

What is induction?

A

Process of inferring rules based on a set of particular observations

Induction allows for generalizations from specific cases, despite the limitations of verification.

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93
Q

Who is associated with the concept of falsification?

A

Karl Popper

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94
Q

What did Karl Popper disagree with regarding the logical basis of induction?

A

He argued that observing many instances does not guarantee future instances.

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95
Q

According to Popper, what is the significance of observing a single black swan?

A

It can falsify the view that all swans are white.

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96
Q

What is the essence of falsification?

A

Proposing a theory and seeking to falsify it.

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97
Q

What does failure to falsify a theory indicate?

A

It is not proof, but support for the theory.

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98
Q

What does the term ‘falsifying a theory’ imply?

A

It means we need to amend the theory.

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99
Q

Can a theory be definitively proven according to Popper?

A

No, a theory cannot be definitively proven.

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100
Q

Fill in the blank: You can definitely _______ a theory.

A

falsify

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101
Q

How did Popper view the scientific community?

A

As a critical community

Popper emphasized that the scientific community should challenge and test theories.

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102
Q

What is the process that Popper suggests scientists follow with their theories?

A

Put forward theories and attempt to break them

This process is essential for scientific advancement.

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103
Q

According to Popper, what do areas that seek to verify not constitute?

A

Science

Popper argued that verification does not lead to genuine scientific progress.

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104
Q

What is the result of breaking and amending theories?

A

Advancement of knowledge and understanding

This practice helps refine scientific theories.

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105
Q

What term describes the increasing closeness of a theory to the truth?

A

Verisimilitude

Verisimilitude refers to the degree of truthlikeness in theories.

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106
Q

Fill in the blank: Theory 2 is closer to truth than _______.

A

Theory 1

This illustrates the process of scientific refinement.

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107
Q

Who explored science through ‘paradigms’?

A

Thomas Kuhn

Thomas Kuhn is known for his work on the philosophy of science.

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108
Q

What is the title of Thomas Kuhn’s seminal work?

A

‘Structure of Scientific Revolution’ (1962)

This book discusses the nature of scientific progress and paradigm shifts.

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109
Q

What does the term ‘paradigm’ derive from?

A

The Greek for ‘pattern’ or ‘template’

The concept of paradigms is central to Kuhn’s theory of scientific revolutions.

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110
Q

How does Kuhn describe the development of scientific practice?

A

Learned/developed by familiarity with successful application of theory

This emphasizes the role of established theories in shaping scientific methods.

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111
Q

What happens as smaller paradigms become broadly accepted?

A

They form a single broad paradigm

This indicates a consolidation of scientific understanding over time.

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112
Q

How does Kuhn characterize the structure of a paradigm?

A

Broad but rigid structure

This suggests that while paradigms can encompass a wide range of theories, they also impose constraints on scientific inquiry.

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113
Q

What occurs during the ‘normal science’ phase of a paradigm?

A

‘Normal science’ occurs by forcing all ideas into the accepted paradigm.

This refers to the phase where existing theories are tested and refined without questioning the foundational assumptions.

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114
Q

According to Kuhn, what is the role of critical discourse in science?

A

The abandonment of critical discourse is what makes a science.

Critical discourse involves questioning and challenging existing paradigms, which is essential for scientific progress.

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115
Q

What happens to results that do not fit the accepted paradigm?

A

They are rejected and considered the mistake of the researcher, not the paradigm.

This highlights the resistance within scientific communities to change established theories.

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116
Q

What occurs when criticisms of a paradigm continue to emerge?

A

The paradigm reaches crisis and no longer functions.

This crisis may lead to the questioning of the paradigm’s validity and the search for alternatives.

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117
Q

What state follows the crisis of a paradigm?

A

A pre-paradigmatic state until a new paradigm is accepted.

This state is characterized by uncertainty and exploration of new ideas.

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118
Q

How did Kuhn describe the transition to a new paradigm?

A

He likened it to a conversion experience.

This analogy emphasizes the profound change in perspective that accompanies the adoption of a new paradigm.

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119
Q

What is a paradigm shift in science?

A

A fundamental change in the basic concepts and practices of a scientific discipline.

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120
Q

Name one example of a paradigm shift in the scientific world.

A

Flat earth to round earth.

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121
Q

What system did the Ptolematic system shift to?

A

The Copernican System.

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122
Q

What replaced Newtonian Physics after 200 years?

A

Quantum mechanics.

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123
Q

Who moved away from Galen’s system of anatomy?

A

Vesalius.

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124
Q

What did Kuhn believe about the nature of scientific progress?

A

That science jumps forward rather than progresses gradually.

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125
Q

What is a paradigm shift in science?

A

A fundamental change in the basic concepts and practices of a scientific discipline.

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126
Q

Name one example of a paradigm shift in the scientific world.

A

Flat earth to round earth.

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127
Q

What system did the Ptolematic system shift to?

A

The Copernican System.

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128
Q

What replaced Newtonian Physics after 200 years?

A

Quantum mechanics.

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129
Q

Who moved away from Galen’s system of anatomy?

A

Vesalius.

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130
Q

What did Kuhn believe about the nature of scientific progress?

A

That science jumps forward rather than progresses gradually.

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131
Q

What is the main focus of the debate between Kuhn and Popper?

A

Their differing views on scientific theories and paradigms.

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132
Q

True or False: Kuhn and Popper completely agreed on their views of scientific progress.

A

False

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133
Q

What is one similarity between Kuhn and Popper’s ideas?

A

All observations are theory laden.

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134
Q

According to Popper, what is necessary for scientific progress?

A

Falsification

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135
Q

Fill in the blank: Popper believed the core theory could be _______ at any time.

A

challenged

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136
Q

Fill in the blank: Kuhn believed the central paradigm was _______ and should be rarely challenged.

A

sacred

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137
Q

What does Popper’s philosophy emphasize in relation to scientific theories?

A

The ability to challenge and falsify theories.

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138
Q

What does Kuhn argue about the central paradigm in scientific research?

A

It should be rarely challenged.

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139
Q

Who proposed the idea of science as research programmes?

A

Imre Lakatos

Lakatos is known for his contributions to the philosophy of science.

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140
Q

What does the term ‘Hard Core’ refer to in Lakatos’s theory?

A

Set of assumptions which cannot be abandoned/changed

The Hard Core forms the foundation of a research programme.

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141
Q

In Lakatos’s framework, what role do auxiliary hypotheses play?

A

Items that did not support Hard Core

Auxiliary hypotheses can be adjusted without affecting the Hard Core.

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142
Q

Fill in the blank: Imre Lakatos proposed the idea of science as _______.

A

research programmes

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143
Q

True or False: The Hard Core of a research programme can be easily changed.

A

False

The Hard Core is meant to remain constant.

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144
Q

What is a Hard Core in scientific paradigms?

A

A foundational set of beliefs or theories that cannot be abandoned or altered without rejecting the entire core.

Similar to a Kuhnian Paradigm.

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145
Q

What is an Auxiliary Hypothesis?

A

Evidence that threatens the core but does not outright reject it as Popper argued.

Exploring these ‘failures’ can lead to significant insights about the central core.

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146
Q

True or False: A Hard Core can be altered without rejecting the entire scientific framework.

A

False

Altering the Hard Core would mean rejecting the whole core.

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147
Q

Fill in the blank: The __________ is similar to a Kuhnian Paradigm and cannot be abandoned.

A

Hard Core

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148
Q

What can be learned through exploring Auxiliary Hypotheses?

A

We can learn a lot about the central core.

This exploration provides insights into the foundational beliefs.

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149
Q

What constitutes science?

A

There is no real unified idea as to what constitutes science.

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150
Q

What is a common characteristic of scientific ideas?

A

Only ideas that can be feasibly tested are considered science.

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151
Q

What is essential for scientific validity?

A

We need to be able to falsify.

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152
Q

What role does observation play in science?

A

Observation is key.

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153
Q

What must accompany ideas or data in science?

A

Ideas/data cannot be considered without theory.

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154
Q

How is science characterized as a process?

A

Science is a process, which doesn’t lead to the end fact.

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155
Q

What can challenge our understanding of science?

A

There are pinch points which challenge our understanding and change our approach.

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156
Q

What is a necessary condition for scientific information?

A

Science must be publicly available.

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157
Q

Fill in the blank: Ideas that can be feasibly tested are considered _______.

A

[science]

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158
Q

True or False: Scientific ideas must be capable of being falsified.

A

True

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159
Q

What is a key characteristic of science?

A

Empiricism/Observation is key

Empiricism emphasizes the importance of observation and experience in the formation of knowledge.

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160
Q

What cannot be considered without theory in science?

A

Ideas/data

Theories provide a framework for interpreting data and understanding observations.

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161
Q

How is science described in terms of its process?

A

Science is a process, which doesn’t lead to the end fact

This indicates that science is ongoing and subject to revision.

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162
Q

What are pinch points in science?

A

They challenge our understanding and change our approach

Pinch points refer to critical moments or findings that prompt reevaluation of existing theories.

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163
Q

What must science be in order to be valid?

A

Publicly available

Transparency allows for peer review and validation of scientific findings.

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164
Q

What type of ideas are considered science?

A

Only ideas that can be feasibly tested

Testability is a fundamental criterion for scientific inquiry.

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165
Q

What is necessary for scientific ideas in terms of falsifiability?

A

We need to be able to falsify

Falsifiability allows for the possibility of disproving a hypothesis, which is essential for scientific credibility.

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166
Q

True or False: There is a unified idea of what constitutes science.

A

False

The concept of science is diverse and varies across different fields and disciplines.

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167
Q

Fill in the blank: Science must be _______ available.

A

publicly

Public availability is crucial for scientific progress and collaboration.

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168
Q

Does the statement ‘science leads to end facts’ accurately describe the nature of science?

A

No

Science is iterative and always open to new evidence and interpretations.

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169
Q

What is the historical significance of empiricism in psychology?

A

Empiricism has a history in psychology, with notable figures including Ebbinghaus, Stroop, Skinner, Milgram, Zimbardo, and Bandura.

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170
Q

Does empiricism alone make a topic scientific?

A

No, empiricism itself does not make a topic scientific.

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171
Q

What would happen if you observed everything you did in a day and wrote it down?

A

You would be no nearer to understanding the world.

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172
Q

What is crucial for gaining understanding through observations?

A

Observations must be ‘systematic’.

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173
Q

What approach helps us learn more about our world in psychology?

A

A systematic approach.

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174
Q

What will you learn throughout your RDA course?

A

How to base your work on systematic empiricism.

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175
Q

Fill in the blank: Observations must be _______ to gain understanding.

A

systematic.

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176
Q

What is the assumption about scientists in theory?

A

Scientists are unbiased in their observations, measurements, and experiments.

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177
Q

How does observation relate to theory?

A

Observation justifies (or not) a theory the scientist already holds.

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178
Q

What determines what kinds of data to collect?

A

Theories determine what kinds of data to collect.

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179
Q

True or False: Theory in the absence of data is considered science.

A

False

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180
Q

True or False: Data alone make a science.

A

False

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181
Q

Why is it important to consider biases when forming a theory?

A

Because biases can influence the formation and justification of the theory.

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182
Q

What is debated amongst scientists and philosophers of science regarding psychology?

A

The use of theory and whether we can be truly unbiased in science

This debate highlights the challenges of objectivity in scientific inquiry.

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183
Q

How do theories in psychology reflect the individual scientist?

A

Theories include and reflect the biases, prejudices, values, and assumptions of the individual scientist

This suggests that personal perspectives can influence scientific outcomes.

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184
Q

What role do unconscious biases such as androcentrism and ethnocentrism play in psychological theories?

A

They influence the development and interpretation of psychological theories

Androcentrism refers to male-centered perspectives, while ethnocentrism involves evaluating other cultures based on one’s own.

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185
Q

Who argued that the ‘critical tradition’ was difficult to follow?

A

Popper

Karl Popper is known for his work in the philosophy of science, particularly regarding falsifiability.

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186
Q

What is a challenge mentioned regarding criticism in scientific theory?

A

It is hard to be consistently criticised

This reflects the human tendency to defend one’s own ideas and theories.

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187
Q

What natural inclination do people have regarding their theories?

A

People naturally wish to defend their theories

This tendency can lead to confirmation bias, where individuals favor information that confirms their existing beliefs.

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188
Q

What term does Kuhn use to describe the current state of psychology?

A

Pre-paradigmatic

Kuhn suggests that psychology has not yet established a unified framework like other sciences.

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189
Q

What was a central paradigm in psychology during the early 1900s?

A

The behaviourist movement

The behaviourist movement focused on observable behaviors and was prominent before declining in influence.

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190
Q

What theory is mentioned as a potential unifying theory for psychology?

A

Darwin’s theory of evolution

Although Darwin’s theory could unify various psychological concepts, it is not widely accepted as the central view in psychology.

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191
Q

What phenomenon has shaped the field of psychology according to the text?

A

Smaller crises

These crises reflect the evolving nature of psychological theories and paradigms over time.

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192
Q

What term does Kuhn use to describe the current state of psychology?

A

Pre-paradigmatic

Kuhn suggests that psychology has not yet established a unified framework like other sciences.

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193
Q

What was a central paradigm in psychology during the early 1900s?

A

The behaviourist movement

The behaviourist movement focused on observable behaviors and was prominent before declining in influence.

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194
Q

What theory is mentioned as a potential unifying theory for psychology?

A

Darwin’s theory of evolution

Although Darwin’s theory could unify various psychological concepts, it is not widely accepted as the central view in psychology.

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195
Q

What phenomenon has shaped the field of psychology according to the text?

A

Smaller crises

These crises reflect the evolving nature of psychological theories and paradigms over time.

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196
Q

What is parapsychology?

A

The scientific study of experiences which, if they are as they seem to be, are in principle outside the realm of human capabilities as presently conceived by conventional scientists

(Irwin & Watts, 2007)

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197
Q

What are some areas studied in parapsychology?

A
  • Study of ghosts
  • Paranormal activity
  • Extrasensory perception
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198
Q

What is a characteristic of parapsychology research methods?

A

They are often extremely robust.

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199
Q

What is a potential challenge faced by researchers in parapsychology?

A

Fear of rebuke.

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200
Q

True or False: Einstein’s theory of relativity predicted gravitational waves that could be detected immediately after its proposal.

A

False.

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201
Q

Fill in the blank: Parapsychology includes the study of _______.

A

[ghosts, paranormal activity, extrasensory perception]

202
Q

What is a key criticism of psychoanalysis according to Popper?

A

Psychoanalysis is difficult to test

Popper argues that theories should be falsifiable to be considered scientific.

203
Q

What did Popper highlight about Adler’s theory?

A

It is not falsifiable

Popper’s critique centered on the inability to prove Adler’s theory wrong.

204
Q

What was Adler’s response to the case that did not fit his theory?

A

He analyzed it in terms of his theory of inferiority feelings

Adler maintained that his extensive experience allowed him to validate his theory.

205
Q

How did Popper challenge Adler’s claim of experience?

A

By questioning the validity of adding a new case to his experience

Popper remarked that Adler’s assertion of experience was not a solid foundation for scientific theory.

206
Q

What question does the text raise about psychoanalysis?

A

Can it be considered a science?

This question stems from the issues of testability and falsifiability in psychoanalysis.

207
Q

What is an important feature in science?

A

Replication

Replication allows for the verification of results in scientific research.

208
Q

What happens to psychological phenomena that do not replicate?

A

We tend to question the central theory

Non-replicable phenomena lead to skepticism about the underlying theories.

209
Q

What concept fits with questioning a central theory when replication fails?

A

Falsification

Falsification is the principle that a theory must be testable and can be proven false.

210
Q

Do practical experiments in ‘hard’ sciences always replicate?

A

No

Even in hard sciences, replication is not guaranteed.

211
Q

What is often blamed when replication fails in hard sciences?

A

The researcher

This reflects a tendency to protect the core idea despite replication issues.

212
Q

What concept by Kuhn is mentioned in relation to replication?

A

Paradigms

Kuhn’s paradigms refer to the frameworks within which scientists operate, affecting how they interpret data.

213
Q

Fill in the blank: When psychological phenomena do not replicate, we tend to _______.

A

question the central theory

214
Q

True or False: In psychology, replication failures lead to blaming the theory rather than the researcher.

A

False

In psychology, replication failures often lead to questioning the theory rather than blaming the researcher.

215
Q

What are the two broad sets of guidelines with respect to ethical behaviour in psychology?

A

BPS Code of ethics and conduct, BPS Code of human research ethics

The BPS Code of ethics and conduct determines professional behaviour as a psychologist, while the BPS Code of human research ethics addresses ethical decision making when conducting research with human participants.

216
Q

What does the BPS Code of ethics and conduct determine?

A

Professional behaviour as a psychologist

This code provides a framework for psychologists to ensure their conduct meets ethical standards.

217
Q

What does the BPS Code of human research ethics address?

A

Ethical decision making when planning and conducting research with human participants

This code guides researchers in ensuring the rights and welfare of participants are protected.

218
Q

What are Practice Guidelines in the context of psychology?

A

Outline general principles of behaviour for those practicing as a psychologist

These guidelines help psychologists maintain a standard of practice that aligns with ethical norms.

219
Q

What is a key ethical principle related to integrity?

A

Honesty & Accuracy

This includes being honest and accurate in representing professional affiliations and qualifications, conveying professional conclusions and opinions, claiming ownership or credit for research.

220
Q

List three aspects of honesty and accuracy in professional conduct.

A
  • Representing professional affiliations and qualifications
  • Conveying professional conclusions and opinions
  • Claiming ownership or credit for research
221
Q

What should professionals avoid to maintain ethical standards?

A

Avoiding Exploitation & Conflicts of Interest

Professionals should remain aware that dual relationships may result in problems.

222
Q

True or False: Professionals should form relationships that can impair their objectivity.

A

False

Professionals should avoid forming relationships that can impair professional objectivity.

223
Q

What is one way professionals can maintain personal boundaries?

A

Refrain from sexual or romantic relationships with persons to whom you are providing a professional service

This is crucial for maintaining ethical standards in professional settings.

224
Q

Fill in the blank: Professionals should refrain from engaging in _______.

A

harassment

225
Q

What should professionals recognize regarding harassment?

A

Recognise all forms of harassment, single event or repeated events

Professionals must be aware of both single occurrences and patterns of harassment.

226
Q

How should professionals address ethical misconduct?

A

Addressing Ethical Misconduct

Professionals should engage colleagues to report misconduct and bring allegations without breaches of confidentiality.

227
Q

What is expected from professionals when they encounter misconduct?

A

Cooperate and engage colleagues regarding misconduct

This includes bringing allegations of misconduct without breaching confidentiality.

228
Q

What should participants be able to do regarding their involvement in an experiment?

A

Withdraw themselves or their data before, during, or after the experiment

This ensures autonomy and respect for participants’ rights.

229
Q

What is a key requirement for participant data in research?

A

Anonymized

Anonymization helps protect participant identities.

230
Q

What type of consent should participants provide?

A

Informed consent

Participants must have sufficient information to make a knowledgeable decision.

231
Q

How should participant data be treated?

A

Confidentially

This ensures that personal information is not disclosed without permission.

232
Q

True or False: Participants can be deceived during an investigation.

A

False

Participants should not be deceived unless essential for the experiment.

233
Q

What must not be experienced by participants beyond everyday living?

A

Psychological or physical discomfort

This is to protect the well-being of participants.

234
Q

List the ethical principles mentioned in relation to participant treatment.

A
  • Withdraw
  • Consent - informed
  • Anonymity
  • Confidentiality
  • Deception
  • Protection from harm

These principles guide ethical decision-making in research.

235
Q

What is the primary ethical standard for psychologists regarding individuals and communities?

A

Respect for the autonomy, privacy, and dignity of individuals and communities

This standard emphasizes the duty of psychologists to prioritize the rights and dignity of their participants.

236
Q

What does respect for participants in research include?

A

A clear duty to participants, including respect for their knowledge, insight, experience, and expertise

Psychologists are expected to acknowledge the contributions of participants in research.

237
Q

List some individual differences that psychologists must respect according to ethical standards.

A
  • Age
  • Disability
  • Gender reassignment
  • Marriage and civil partnership
  • Pregnancy and maternity
  • Race
  • Religion and belief
  • Sex
  • Sexual orientation
  • Education
  • Language
  • Socio-economic status

These differences are essential for ensuring ethical treatment in psychological practice.

238
Q

True or False: Psychologists are required to respect cultural differences in their participants.

A

True

Respecting cultural differences is a key component of ethical standards in psychology.

239
Q

Fill in the blank: Psychologists have a clear duty to _______ in the research context.

A

participants

This duty includes ensuring their rights and dignity are upheld.

240
Q

What is scientific integrity?

A

Commitment to ensuring high-quality and accountable standards in research

Scientific integrity emphasizes the importance of ethical standards in the research process.

241
Q

What are ethics standards in psychology focused on?

A

Ensuring accountability and high quality in research

This includes adherence to scientific design and consideration of potential risks.

242
Q

What does quality in research primarily relate to?

A

The scientific design of the research

Quality also involves considering potential risks of harm and protocols for addressing difficulties.

243
Q

Why is transparency important in research aims?

A

To ensure clarity in what the research intends to achieve

Transparency helps stakeholders understand the objectives and potential impacts of the research.

244
Q

Fill in the blank: Ethics standards ensure that research is _______.

A

[accountable and of sufficiently high quality]

245
Q

True or False: Scientific integrity is unrelated to the risks of harm in research.

A

False

Scientific integrity includes considerations for potential risks of harm.

246
Q

What is the aim of generating psychological knowledge?

A

To support beneficial outcomes

Beneficial outcomes are defined as those that respect the dignity and integrity of persons and contribute to the common good.

247
Q

How should ethical standards be defined in the context of psychology?

A

Ethics standards should aim to support beneficial outcomes that reflect respect for dignity and integrity

This includes respect for individuals and groups.

248
Q

Fill in the blank: The aim of generating psychological knowledge should be to support _______.

A

[beneficial outcomes]

249
Q

True or False: Ethical standards in psychology are only concerned with individual dignity.

A

False

Ethical standards also encompass collective dignity and the common good.

250
Q

What are beneficial outcomes in the context of ethical decision-making?

A

Outcomes that support and reflect respect for dignity and integrity

This includes contributions to the common good.

251
Q

What should psychology researchers seek to maximise in their work?

A

The benefits of their work at all stages, from inception through to dissemination.

252
Q

What must be avoided in research involving human participants?

A

Harm to research participants.

253
Q

What should be developed and complied with when unavoidable risks arise in research?

A

Robust risk assessment and management protocols.

254
Q

What is the normal expectation for the risk of harm in psychological research?

A

The risk of harm should be no greater than that encountered in ordinary life.

255
Q

Fill in the blank: Researchers should not expose participants to risks greater than or additional to those to which they are exposed in their _______.

A

normal lifestyles.

256
Q

Who is the key figure associated with the concept of dualism in psychology?

A

René Descartes

Descartes was a French philosopher known for his influential thoughts on the relationship between mind and body.

257
Q

What question did Descartes seek to answer regarding the mind and body?

A

Are the body and mind separate?

This question relates to the philosophical inquiry about the existence of a soul distinct from the body.

258
Q

What are the two components that Descartes separated in his theory of dualism?

A
  • Physical matter (res extensa)
  • Non-material, non-extended mind (res cogitans)

These terms describe the physical and mental aspects of existence according to Cartesian dualism.

259
Q

What famous phrase did Descartes coin that encapsulates his philosophical stance?

A

Cogito ergo sum

This translates to ‘I think, therefore I am,’ emphasizing the connection between thought and existence.

260
Q

What does Descartes suggest about consciousness?

A

No consciousness without a body that carries it

This implies that the mind cannot exist independently of the physical body.

261
Q

Fill in the blank: Descartes’ theory of dualism is often referred to as _______.

A

Cartesian dualism

This term reflects Descartes’ views on the separation of mind and body.

262
Q

True or False: Descartes believed that knowledge was the only thing that exists.

A

True

Descartes is known for his assertion that knowledge is fundamental to existence.

263
Q

Who is the key figure associated with the concept of dualism in psychology?

A

René Descartes

Descartes was a French philosopher known for his influential thoughts on the relationship between mind and body.

264
Q

What question did Descartes seek to answer regarding the mind and body?

A

Are the body and mind separate?

This question relates to the philosophical inquiry about the existence of a soul distinct from the body.

265
Q

What are the two components that Descartes separated in his theory of dualism?

A
  • Physical matter (res extensa)
  • Non-material, non-extended mind (res cogitans)

These terms describe the physical and mental aspects of existence according to Cartesian dualism.

266
Q

What famous phrase did Descartes coin that encapsulates his philosophical stance?

A

Cogito ergo sum

This translates to ‘I think, therefore I am,’ emphasizing the connection between thought and existence.

267
Q

What does Descartes suggest about consciousness?

A

No consciousness without a body that carries it

This implies that the mind cannot exist independently of the physical body.

268
Q

Fill in the blank: Descartes’ theory of dualism is often referred to as _______.

A

Cartesian dualism

This term reflects Descartes’ views on the separation of mind and body.

269
Q

True or False: Descartes believed that knowledge was the only thing that exists.

A

True

Descartes is known for his assertion that knowledge is fundamental to existence.

270
Q

Who wrote ‘The Passions of the Soul’?

A

René Descartes

Published in 1646, this work discusses the nature of emotions.

271
Q

What are the ‘animal spirits’ according to Descartes?

A

Animal spirits are substances that connect muscles and the brain to trigger ‘passions’

Descartes believed these spirits played a role in emotional responses.

272
Q

List some of the passions described by Descartes.

A
  • Wonder
  • Love
  • Hatred
  • Desire
  • Joy
  • Sadness

These emotions are linked to the concept of animal spirits.

273
Q

What function does Descartes attribute to the central nervous system?

A

It serves as a highway for animal spirits

This implies that the central nervous system plays a crucial role in emotion and action.

274
Q

How do the mind and body interact according to Descartes?

A

Via the pineal gland in the brain

Descartes viewed the pineal gland as the point of interaction between the mind and body.

275
Q

What was Descartes’ view of the brain?

A

He believed the brain to be a working machine

This mechanical view foreshadowed later developments in psychology and neuroscience.

276
Q

True or False: Descartes’ ideas about emotions were influenced by the theory of evolution.

A

False

Descartes’ theories were developed before the concept of evolution was widely accepted.

277
Q

What is the main idea of the nature vs. nurture debate?

A

The debate contrasts nativists, who believe in innate knowledge, with empiricists, who argue that knowledge comes from experience.

This debate continues to influence various areas of psychology, including language acquisition.

278
Q

Who is an example of a nativist philosopher?

A

Leibniz

Leibniz argued that everyone is born with innate knowledge and that experience merely liberates ideas already present in the mind.

279
Q

What do nativists believe about abstract concepts?

A

They believe it is impossible to derive abstract concepts from experience.

Nativists hold that certain ideas are inherent and not learned from sensory experiences.

280
Q

What is the view of empiricists regarding knowledge?

A

Empiricists believe that all knowledge comes from experience impacting the mind.

Key figures include Locke, Berkeley, and Hume.

281
Q

Which philosophers are considered empiricists?

A
  • Locke
  • Berkeley
  • Hume

These philosophers emphasized that sensory experience is the only true knowledge of the world.

282
Q

What argument do empiricists present against innate ideas?

A

If ideas were innate, everyone should have them regardless of age or intelligence.

This challenges the nativist position by suggesting that innate ideas cannot be universally experienced.

283
Q

Fill in the blank: Nativists argue that experience serves only to _______.

A

[liberate ideas that were in the mind already]

284
Q

True or False: The debate between nativism and empiricism is a historical issue that has been resolved.

A

False

The debate continues to exist in modern psychology.

285
Q

What is the title of Darwin’s book published in 1859?

A

‘The Origin of Species’

286
Q

What is the basis of Darwin’s theory of evolution?

A

Natural selection

287
Q

What are the three principles of Darwin’s evolutionary theory?

A
  • The Principle of Variation
  • The Principle of Inheritance
  • The Principle of Adaptation
288
Q

What does the Principle of Variation state?

A

All species show variation in their phenotype

289
Q

What does the Principle of Inheritance indicate?

A

A part of this variation is heritable

290
Q

What occurs according to the Principle of Adaptation?

A

Competition among individuals for scarce resources occurs

291
Q

How does adaptation relate to survival?

A

Survival of the fittest

292
Q

What kind of behavior do animals and human beings develop?

A

Adaptive behavior that is helpful for survival

293
Q

How is the mind shaped according to Darwin’s theory?

A

The mind is shaped by the individual’s behavior in their environment

294
Q

Fill in the blank: Phenotype is a mix of _______ and environment.

A

genetics

295
Q

True or False: The Principle of Adaptation suggests that some variants allow their bearers to compete effectively.

A

True

296
Q

What is psychophysics?

A

Study of the relationship between incoming physical (sensory) stimuli and people’s responses to or experiences of them.

Focuses on how individuals respond to stimuli rather than the stimuli themselves.

297
Q

Who wrote ‘Elements of Psychophysics’?

A

Fechner

Fechner lived from 1801 to 1887 and is considered a key figure in the beginnings of psychology.

298
Q

What year was ‘Elements of Psychophysics’ published?

A

1860

299
Q

What does Fechner’s Law state?

A

Sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity.

This law suggests that as stimulus intensity increases, more of it is needed to detect a change.

300
Q

In Fechner’s Law, what happens to sensation as stimulus intensity increases?

A

More is needed to detect a change.

301
Q

What was Fechner’s goal in his research?

A

To discover a mathematical relationship between items.

302
Q

What is a significant application of psychophysics?

A

Used in consumer behaviors.

303
Q

True or False: Psychophysics focuses on how stimuli change rather than how people respond to them.

A

False

304
Q

Fill in the blank: Psychophysics is the study of the relationship between _______ and people’s responses.

A

[incoming physical (sensory) stimuli]

305
Q

Who was Ebbinghaus?

A

A pioneer in the study of memory and learning

Ebbinghaus conducted significant research on memory using himself as the subject.

306
Q

What years did Ebbinghaus conduct his initial memory studies?

A

1879-1880

He later replicated the procedure from 1883-1884.

307
Q

What did Ebbinghaus produce for his studies?

A

Nonsense syllables

This helped him analyze memory without the influence of existing knowledge.

308
Q

What concept did Ebbinghaus introduce related to learning?

A

‘Learning to criterion’

This concept refers to the idea of learning until a certain standard or criterion is met.

309
Q

What are the two key curves Ebbinghaus is known for?

A

Learning curve and forgetting curve

These curves illustrate how information is acquired and lost over time.

310
Q

What does the primacy effect refer to?

A

The tendency to remember the first items on a list

This effect is part of the broader study of memory recall.

311
Q

What does the recency effect refer to?

A

The tendency to remember the last items on a list

Together with the primacy effect, it explains how items are recalled differently based on their position.

312
Q

Fill in the blank: Ebbinghaus is known for studying _______.

A

memory and learning

His research laid the groundwork for modern psychology.

313
Q

True or False: Ebbinghaus only studied memory for a few months.

A

False

He gathered data for more than a year.

314
Q

Who was among the first to conduct studies of memory and learning?

A

Ebbinghaus

315
Q

What was the time period during which Ebbinghaus gathered data for his studies?

A

1879-1880

316
Q

What did Ebbinghaus replicate between 1883 and 1884?

A

The entire procedure of his memory studies

317
Q

What type of syllables did Ebbinghaus produce for his studies?

A

Nonsense syllables

318
Q

What concept did Ebbinghaus introduce that refers to achieving a specific level of learning?

A

‘Learning to criterion’

319
Q

What are the two types of curves introduced by Ebbinghaus?

A

Learning curve and forgetting curve

320
Q

What does the term ‘primacy effect’ refer to?

A

The tendency to remember the first items on a list

321
Q

What does the term ‘recency effect’ refer to?

A

The tendency to remember the last items on a list

322
Q

Fill in the blank: Ebbinghaus’s studies showed that the _______ and _______ effects influence memory.

A

Primacy and recency

323
Q

True or False: Ebbinghaus’s studies indicated that the middle items on a list are typically remembered better than the first and last items.

A

False

324
Q

Who opened the first laboratory of Experimental Psychology?

A

Wundt in 1879 at Leipzig University

325
Q

What journal did Wundt found that was the world’s first devoted to Experimental Psychology?

A

‘Philosophische Studien’ (‘Philosophical Studies’)

326
Q

What was the aim of Experimental Psychology according to Wundt?

A

To systematically vary the stimuli and conditions that elicited different mental states

327
Q

What method did Wundt use to analyze conscious experience?

A

Introspection

328
Q

Who were the subjects used in Wundt’s introspection method?

A

Only trained, advanced Psychology students

329
Q

True or False: Wundt’s methods are considered objective by today’s standards.

A

False

330
Q

Fill in the blank: Wundt is alleged to be the first to call himself a _______.

A

[psychologist]

331
Q

What is a limitation of introspection as a method in psychology?

A

Different observers can provide different responses to the same stimuli

332
Q

In what year did Wundt establish his laboratory?

A

1879

333
Q

What is one criticism of Wundt’s introspection method?

A

Methods perhaps too subjective by today’s standards

334
Q

Who was Titchener?

A

A student of Wundt and a key figure in structuralism

Titchener studied under Wundt from 1890 to 1892.

335
Q

What did Titchener believe about psychological phenomena?

A

They are composed of mental elements.

336
Q

What was Titchener’s view on the role of the experimental psychologist?

A

‘The experimental psychologist should unravel the elemental processes from the tangle of experience’ (Titchener, 1898).

337
Q

List the three important tasks of structuralism.

A
  • Discover how many processes there were
  • Identify the elements of these processes
  • Explain how they work together.
338
Q

How did Titchener relate sensations to elements?

A

He likened sensations to structures, similar to elements in chemistry.

339
Q

What was one of Titchener’s goals regarding the mind?

A

To analyze the laws governing the connections between the elements of the mind.

340
Q

What connection did Titchener aim to evaluate?

A

The connections between the mind and the nervous system.

341
Q

Who was Titchener’s first PhD student?

A

Margaret Floy Washburn.

342
Q

What is significant about Margaret Floy Washburn?

A

She was the first woman to receive a PhD in psychology (1894).

343
Q

What are the three mental components of conscious experience according to Titchener?

A
  • Sensations (discernments)
  • Images (thoughts)
  • Affections (emotions)

Titchener’s theory emphasizes these components as fundamental to understanding consciousness.

344
Q

What aspects can vary for each sensation?

A
  • Quality
  • Intensity
  • Duration
  • Clearness

These aspects define how sensations are experienced and perceived.

345
Q

Define ‘Quality’ in the context of sensations.

A

Distinguishing elements from one another

Quality helps to identify different sensations.

346
Q

Define ‘Intensity’ in relation to sensations.

A

How strong/bright/loud a stimulus is

Intensity measures the strength of a sensation.

347
Q

What does ‘Duration’ refer to in the study of sensations?

A

How long a sensation lasts

Duration indicates the temporal aspect of a sensation.

348
Q

What is meant by ‘Clearness’ in the context of consciousness?

A

Attention in consciousness

Clearness is related to how focused a sensation is in one’s awareness.

349
Q

What does functionalism focus on in psychology?

A

Dynamic purposes of psychological experience rather than its structure

Functionalism emphasizes the functions and processes of mental states.

350
Q

Who heavily influenced functionalism?

A

Darwin

Darwin’s theories on evolution and adaptation influenced the understanding of psychological phenomena.

351
Q

How are psychological phenomena viewed in functionalism?

A

They are not isolated from the environment; they are influenced and interrelated by changing behaviour in a complex environment

This perspective emphasizes the context in which psychological processes occur.

352
Q

What is the title of the highly influential book written by William James?

A

The Principles of Psychology

Published in 1890, this work laid foundational concepts for psychology.

353
Q

How did William James describe psychology?

A

As the science of mental life

This definition encompasses both conscious and unconscious processes.

354
Q

Fill in the blank: Functionalism is largely concerned with the _______ of psychological experience.

A

dynamic purposes

This highlights the functional aspect of mental processes.

355
Q

True or False: Functionalism views psychological phenomena as isolated from their environment.

A

False

Functionalism emphasizes the connection between psychological phenomena and their environmental context.

356
Q

Who proposed the theory of emotion that suggests behavior produces changes in our conscious experience?

A

William James

357
Q

What are the three steps to experience emotions according to James?

A
  • Perception of a stimulus/situation
  • Bodily changes result from the perception of a situation
  • Recognition of the bodily changes produce subjective feelings/emotions
358
Q

True or False: James believed that knowledge serves a purely theoretical purpose.

A

False

359
Q

Fill in the blank: James believed that knowledge serves a _______ purpose.

A

pragmatic

360
Q

What does pragmatic knowledge develop according to James?

A

A cohesive understanding of life

361
Q

Who described the concept of classical conditioning?

A

Pavlov

Pavlov’s work in 1903 laid the foundation for classical conditioning.

362
Q

What is the definition of classical conditioning?

A

A neutral stimulus associated with an unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that causes a conditioned response

This process involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response.

363
Q

Who described the concept of operant conditioning?

A

Thorndike

Thorndike’s theories emerged in 1898 and 1911.

364
Q

What is the Law of Effect?

A

Learning that our behaviours may be associated with consequences

This principle states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are likely to be repeated.

365
Q

What happens when positive consequences are associated with a behavior?

A

The behavior is more likely to occur in the future

Positive reinforcement strengthens the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

366
Q

What happens when negative consequences are associated with a behavior?

A

The behavior is avoided in the future

Negative reinforcement or punishment leads to a decrease in the occurrence of a behavior.

367
Q

Fill in the blank: A neutral stimulus associated with an unconditioned stimulus becomes a _______.

A

conditioned stimulus

This transformation is key to classical conditioning.

368
Q

True or False: Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both learning processes.

A

True

Both concepts explain how behaviors are learned and modified.

369
Q

What are the three main features of the behaviourist manifesto?

A
  • Psychology must be objective and exclude subjective data and interpretations.
  • To predict and control overt behaviour rather than describe and explain conscious mental states.
  • Remove distinction between humans and non-human animals.
370
Q

According to behaviourism, what should psychology focus on?

A

Psychology should focus on predicting and controlling overt behaviour.

371
Q

True or False: Behaviourism maintains that there is a significant distinction between humans and non-human animals.

A

False

372
Q

Fill in the blank: Behaviourism argues that humans are a more complex form of _______.

A

behaviour seen in other species.

373
Q

What does the behaviourist manifesto suggest about subjective data?

A

It must be excluded from psychology.

374
Q

What concept did Watson famously conduct related to child development?

A

‘Little Albert’ concept

This experiment demonstrated classical conditioning in children.

375
Q

According to Watson, how is behavior defined?

A

Behavior is a ‘reflex’ to our environment

This suggests that behavior is influenced by external stimuli.

376
Q

What does conditioning allow us to do, according to the text?

A

Conditioning could be generalised

This means that learned behaviors can apply to similar situations.

377
Q

What does the text suggest about children in relation to their experiences?

A

Children are a product of their experiences

This implies that environmental factors play a significant role in development.

378
Q

What did Watson argue regarding shaping children’s futures?

A

Could shape any child to become; doctor, lawyer, artist etc

This reflects the belief in the power of conditioning to influence career paths.

379
Q

Who is the founder of Psychoanalytic Theory?

A

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Freud’s work laid the foundation for the field of psychology as we know it today.

380
Q

What is the main focus of Psychoanalytic Theory?

A

Importance of unconscious mental processes

This theory emphasizes how unconscious thoughts shape feelings, thoughts, and behaviors.

381
Q

What does psychoanalysis aim to achieve?

A

Bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness

This process helps individuals better understand psychological disorders.

382
Q

Psychoanalysis is primarily a _______ approach.

A

[therapeutic]

It is utilized to treat psychological issues by analyzing unconscious thoughts.

383
Q

What type of patients did Freud primarily observe?

A

Patients suffering with hysteria

One notable patient was ‘Anna’, who contributed to Freud’s theories.

384
Q

What motivates much of our behavior according to psychodynamic theory?

A

Inner and unconscious forces, memories, and conflicts

These elements are often beyond a person’s awareness or control.

385
Q

Define ‘Preconscious’ in psychodynamic theory.

A

Can be brought into conscious thought

This contrasts with the unconscious, which cannot be accessed directly.

386
Q

Define ‘Unconscious’ in psychodynamic theory.

A

Cannot be brought into conscious thought

It contains thoughts and feelings that are not accessible to awareness.

387
Q

What techniques can help bring thoughts and feelings into consciousness?

A

Special techniques such as:
* Free association
* Dream interpretation
* Transference

These methods are used in psychodynamic therapy.

388
Q

What is the impact of early experience according to psychodynamic theory?

A

Highly influential on later personality

Early experiences shape the development of personality traits.

389
Q

Is the psychodynamic approach synonymous with psychoanalytic theory?

A

No, they are not synonymous

They represent different aspects of psychological understanding.

390
Q

What does the ‘ID’ represent in psychodynamic theory?

A

Unconscious and impulsive, pleasure-seeking part of the brain

The ID operates on the pleasure principle.

391
Q

What is the role of the ‘Ego’ in psychodynamic theory?

A

Conscious and mediates between the ID and superego

The Ego functions according to the reality principle.

392
Q

What does the ‘Super-Ego’ represent?

A

The morally correct part of the mind

It deals with consciousness and upholding values.

393
Q

What motivates much of our behavior according to psychodynamic theory?

A

Inner and unconscious forces, memories, and conflicts

These elements are often beyond a person’s awareness or control.

394
Q

Define ‘Preconscious’ in psychodynamic theory.

A

Can be brought into conscious thought

This contrasts with the unconscious, which cannot be accessed directly.

395
Q

Define ‘Unconscious’ in psychodynamic theory.

A

Cannot be brought into conscious thought

It contains thoughts and feelings that are not accessible to awareness.

396
Q

What techniques can help bring thoughts and feelings into consciousness?

A

Special techniques such as:
* Free association
* Dream interpretation
* Transference

These methods are used in psychodynamic therapy.

397
Q

What is the impact of early experience according to psychodynamic theory?

A

Highly influential on later personality

Early experiences shape the development of personality traits.

398
Q

Is the psychodynamic approach synonymous with psychoanalytic theory?

A

No, they are not synonymous

They represent different aspects of psychological understanding.

399
Q

What does the ‘ID’ represent in psychodynamic theory?

A

Unconscious and impulsive, pleasure-seeking part of the brain

The ID operates on the pleasure principle.

400
Q

What is the role of the ‘Ego’ in psychodynamic theory?

A

Conscious and mediates between the ID and superego

The Ego functions according to the reality principle.

401
Q

What does the ‘Super-Ego’ represent?

A

The morally correct part of the mind

It deals with consciousness and upholding values.

402
Q

Who founded Gestalt Psychology?

A

Wertheimer, Kohler, and Koffka

Founded in Germany in 1912.

403
Q

What is the fundamental assumption of Gestalt Psychology?

A

The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

404
Q

What are some meanings of the term ‘Gestalt’?

A
  • Form
  • Shape
  • Essence
  • Manner
405
Q

True or False: In Gestalt Psychology, the whole is considered to be the same as the sum of its parts.

A

False

406
Q

Fill in the blank: The whole is ______ than the sum of its parts.

A

greater

407
Q

Who was the first black man to receive a PhD in Psychology?

A

Francis Cecil Sumner

Francis Cecil Sumner earned his PhD in 1920.

408
Q

In what year did Francis Cecil Sumner receive his PhD?

A

1920

Sumner’s accomplishment marked a significant milestone in psychology.

409
Q

What was Francis Cecil Sumner’s primary area of interest?

A

Understanding and eliminating racial bias in the administration of justice

His work focused on social justice and psychology.

410
Q

What types of publications did Francis Cecil Sumner contribute to?

A

Wrote abstracts for the Journal of Social Psychology and the Psychological Bulletin

His contributions helped advance the field of psychology.

411
Q

Who is Gordon Allport?

A

An important figure in the development and measurement of personality traits.

412
Q

What is Allport’s discrimination scale?

A

A measure developed by Allport to assess personality traits.

413
Q

What is the title of Allport’s published work?

A

Personality: A Psychological Interpretation.

414
Q

Define personality according to Allport.

A

Objective self, fundamental adjustment patterns that an individual forms over the course of their experience.

415
Q

How does Allport view an individual’s personality?

A

As a unique combination of traits.

416
Q

What is a trait?

A

A relatively stable disposition to behave in a particular and consistent way.

417
Q

What does Allport believe traits are?

A

Pre-existing dispositions that reliably trigger behavior.

418
Q

What is the Zone of Proximal Development?

A

The difference between a child’s learning progress with help or guidance and the child’s learning achievement without guidance of an adult.

419
Q

Who is associated with the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development?

A

Vygotsky (1896-1934)

420
Q

What role does speech play according to Vygotsky?

A

Speech is a mediator between an individual and the outside world.

421
Q

How does language affect psychological development according to Vygotsky?

A

Language is used to change both the external and ‘internal’ psychological world.

422
Q

What type of methods did Vygotsky use in his research?

A

Observational methods.

423
Q

Fill in the blank: The Zone of Proximal Development indicates what a learner can do with _______.

A

[guidance]

424
Q

Fill in the blank: The Zone of Proximal Development indicates what a learner can do unaided, what a learner cannot do, and _______.

A

[what a learner can do with guidance]

425
Q

What is the Zone of Proximal Development?

A

The difference between a child’s learning progress with help or guidance and the child’s learning achievement without guidance of an adult.

426
Q

Who is associated with the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development?

A

Vygotsky (1896-1934)

427
Q

What role does speech play according to Vygotsky?

A

Speech is a mediator between an individual and the outside world.

428
Q

How does language affect psychological development according to Vygotsky?

A

Language is used to change both the external and ‘internal’ psychological world.

429
Q

What type of methods did Vygotsky use in his research?

A

Observational methods.

430
Q

Fill in the blank: The Zone of Proximal Development indicates what a learner can do with _______.

A

[guidance]

431
Q

Fill in the blank: The Zone of Proximal Development indicates what a learner can do unaided, what a learner cannot do, and _______.

A

[what a learner can do with guidance]

432
Q

Who is associated with the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development?

A

Vygotsky (1896-1934)

Vygotsky’s work emphasizes the importance of social interactions in learning.

433
Q

What is the Zone of Proximal Development?

A

The difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can do with guidance

This concept highlights the potential for learning with appropriate support.

434
Q

What is one way to assist learners through the Zone of Proximal Development?

A

Present learner with a more knowledgeable other

This method encourages learning through observation and guidance.

435
Q

What role do social interactions play in the Zone of Proximal Development?

A

They allow the learner to observe and practice skills with a tutor

Social interactions facilitate the learning process by providing real-time feedback.

436
Q

What is scaffolding in the context of education?

A

Providing supportive activities as learners are guided through the Zone of Proximal Development

Scaffolding helps to build independence in learners gradually.

437
Q

Fill in the blank: The Zone of Proximal Development emphasizes the importance of _______ in learning.

A

social interactions

These interactions are crucial for effective learning and skill acquisition.

438
Q

True or False: Scaffolding is a one-time support method.

A

False

Scaffolding is an ongoing process that adapts to the learner’s needs.

439
Q

What is the primary focus of Vygotsky’s theory?

A

The interaction between social context and cognitive development

Vygotsky believed that learning is inherently social.

440
Q

Who is the psychologist associated with the theory of cognitive development?

A

Jean Piaget

441
Q

What is the key idea of Piaget’s theory regarding children’s cognitive processes?

A

Children’s cognitive processes differ from that of adults

442
Q

According to Piaget, what determines the stages of cognitive development?

A

The child’s developing brain, skills, and social environment

443
Q

What is the term for the process of adopting new objects into old mental patterns?

A

Assimilation

444
Q

What is the term for modifying one’s mental structures to fit new demands of the environment?

A

Accommodation

445
Q

Fill in the blank: Human development is a process of _______ involving adaptation.

A

adaptation

446
Q

True or False: Piaget believed that cognitive development occurs in a linear fashion.

A

False

447
Q

What are the two main processes involved in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

A
  • Assimilation
  • Accommodation
448
Q

What did Piaget (1896-1980) assert about children’s cognitive processes?

A

Children’s cognitive processes differ from that of adults

Piaget emphasized the distinct ways children think compared to adults.

449
Q

What determines the stages of cognitive development according to Piaget?

A

The child’s developing brain, skills, and social environment

Piaget believed that cognitive development is not uniform but varies based on these factors.

450
Q

What is assimilation in the context of cognitive development?

A

Adopt new objects into old mental patterns

Assimilation helps children integrate new experiences using existing cognitive frameworks.

451
Q

What is accommodation in cognitive development?

A

Modify one’s mental structures to fit new demands of the environment

Accommodation allows for the adjustment of cognitive schemas when encountering new information.

452
Q

Fill in the blank: According to Piaget, human development is a process of _______.

A

adaptation

Adaptation involves both assimilation and accommodation to understand the world.

453
Q

What is humanistic psychology?

A

A theoretical and practical field in psychology concerned with an individual’s uniqueness

It emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization.

454
Q

What is referred to as the ‘third force’ in psychology?

A

‘Third force’ refers to humanistic psychology, which follows behaviorism and psychodynamic approaches

It emerged in response to the limitations of the first two forces.

455
Q

How is the psychodynamic approach viewed in relation to humanistic psychology?

A

Psychodynamic approach is seen as pessimistic

Humanistic psychology focuses on positive aspects of human nature.

456
Q

How is the behaviorist approach viewed in relation to humanistic psychology?

A

Behaviorist approach is seen as too passive/robotic

Humanistic psychology emphasizes active human experience.

457
Q

What concerns does humanistic psychology address?

A

Concerns over the loss of essence of human existence

It seeks to reclaim the uniqueness and value of individuals.

458
Q

When was humanistic psychology formally recognized by the APA?

A

1971

This recognition marked a significant milestone in the field.

459
Q

What type of methodologies does humanistic psychology favor?

A

Qualitative methodologies, specifically a phenomenological approach

This approach focuses on individuals’ subjective experiences.

460
Q

Who is the author of ‘Man’s Search for Meaning’?

A

Viktor E. Frankl

Viktor Frankl is a prominent figure in psychology and is known for his contributions to humanistic psychology.

461
Q

What type of theory did Viktor E. Frankl develop?

A

Humanistic theory of behaviour

This theory emphasizes the inherent value and agency of individuals.

462
Q

According to Frankl, what is the primary motivation for life?

A

Finding meaning

Frankl posits that the search for meaning is fundamental to human existence.

463
Q

True or False: Frankl believes that life has meaning only in certain circumstances.

A

False

Frankl asserts that life has meaning under all circumstances.

464
Q

What freedom do individuals have according to Frankl’s theory?

A

Freedom to find meaning in what we do

This freedom is crucial for personal fulfillment and purpose.

465
Q

In what context did Viktor Frankl develop his theory?

A

During time in the Nazi concentration camps

Frankl’s experiences in the camps significantly shaped his understanding of meaning.

466
Q

What does Frankl mean by ‘Man’s Search for Meaning’?

A

It is the primary motivation in life, not a secondary rationalization of instinctual drives

Frankl emphasizes that each person’s search for meaning is unique and essential.

467
Q

According to Frankl, what must a person’s meaning achieve?

A

It must be fulfilled by him alone

This personal fulfillment is crucial for one’s will to meaning.

468
Q

Fill in the blank: Man, however, is able to live and even to die for the sake of his _______.

A

ideals and values

Frankl highlights the significance of personal ideals in one’s search for meaning.

469
Q

What is self-actualization?

A

Achieving one’s full potential, including creative activities

Self-actualization is often considered the highest level of psychological development in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

470
Q

What are esteem needs?

A

Prestige and feeling of accomplishment

Esteem needs are part of Maslow’s hierarchy and are important for self-esteem and personal worth.

471
Q

What do belongingness and love needs encompass?

A

Intimate relationships and friends

These needs are crucial for emotional well-being and social connections.

472
Q

What are safety needs?

A

Security and safety

Safety needs include physical safety as well as financial and health security.

473
Q

What are physiological needs?

A

Food, water, warmth, rest

These are the basic requirements for human survival and must be met first.

474
Q

Fill in the blank: Self-fulfillment needs are part of _______.

A

[psychological needs]

Self-fulfillment needs refer to the desire to realize one’s potential and seek personal growth.

475
Q

What are basic needs according to Maslow’s hierarchy?

A

Physiological needs and safety needs

Basic needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs can be addressed.

476
Q

What is Social Psychology?

A

The study of the causes and consequences of interpersonal behaviour.

Social psychology examines how individuals influence and are influenced by others.

477
Q

Who were some early theorists in Social Psychology?

A

Le Bon, McDougall, Tarde

These theorists believed in the instinctual nature of social behaviour.

478
Q

What significant finding did Triplett demonstrate in 1898?

A

People perform tasks differently when they are in groups than when they have to perform alone.

Triplett’s research involved swimmers and cyclists.

479
Q

True or False: Early theories of Social Psychology emphasized learned behavior over instinctual behavior.

A

False

Early theories believed in the instinctual nature of social behaviour.

480
Q

Fill in the blank: Social Psychology studies the _______ and consequences of interpersonal behaviour.

A

causes

This highlights the focus on understanding why individuals behave in social contexts.

481
Q

What is a key concept studied in social psychology?

A

Conformity

Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms.

482
Q

What experiment is associated with Asch in 1955?

A

The line judgement studies

These studies examined how individuals conform to group opinions even when they are incorrect.

483
Q

What is the main focus of Milgram’s 1963 experiments?

A

Obedience

Milgram’s experiments demonstrated how far individuals would go in obeying authority figures, even to the point of causing harm to others.

484
Q

Fill in the blank: The line judgement studies were conducted by _______.

A

Asch

485
Q

Fill in the blank: The shock experiments were conducted by _______.

A

Milgram

486
Q

True or False: The line judgement studies focused on obedience.

A

False

The line judgement studies focused on conformity, not obedience.

487
Q

What psychological phenomenon does Milgram’s experiment illustrate?

A

The conflict between personal conscience and obedience to authority

Milgram’s findings revealed the extent to which individuals are willing to comply with authority, even against their moral beliefs.

488
Q

What is cognitive psychology?

A

The scientific study of human mental processes and their role in thinking, emotions, and behaviour.

Cognitive psychology focuses on understanding how people perceive, remember, think, and learn.

489
Q

What is the origin of the term ‘cognitive’?

A

From the Latin word ‘Cognoscere’, meaning ‘to know’.

This origin reflects the focus of cognitive psychology on knowledge and understanding.

490
Q

What was the cognitive revolution?

A

A shift from primarily behavioural to cognitive psychology in the late 1950s to 1970s.

This period marked significant advancements in understanding mental processes.

491
Q

What is a major criticism of behaviourism?

A

It ignores concepts relating to cognition.

Behaviourism focuses solely on observable behaviours, neglecting internal mental states.

492
Q

What is Miller’s ‘magic number’?

A

7 +/- 2

Refers to the capacity limit of working memory as proposed by George A. Miller in 1956.

493
Q

Who wrote ‘Plans and Structures of Behaviour’?

A

Miller et al.

This book was published in 1960 and is significant in the field of cognitive psychology.

494
Q

What assumption does cognitive psychology make about mental life?

A

Mental life = information processing

This assumption suggests that human cognition can be understood as a series of information processing activities.

495
Q

How does cognitive psychology view human beings?

A

As complex computing devices

This analogy emphasizes the intricate nature of human cognitive functions.

496
Q

What can any psychological process be explained as, according to cognitive psychology?

A

Information processing based on a specific set of instructions or programs

This perspective allows for a structured approach to understanding psychological phenomena.

497
Q

What is the ‘Test-operate-test-exit’ model?

A

A process that describes how individuals manage psychological operations

This model highlights the iterative nature of cognitive processes.

498
Q

What is the heritability range of antisocial behavior according to Raine (2013)?

A

40-60%

This indicates that genetics play a significant role in antisocial behavior.

499
Q

What are gene-environment interactions?

A

Behaviors can have a genetic basis but are only expressed depending on environmental factors

This suggests that both genetics and environment influence behavior.

500
Q

Which gene moderates the effect of maltreatment on antisocial behavior?

A

Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA)

The MAOA gene is linked to the regulation of neurotransmitters that may affect behavior.

501
Q

How does the MAOA gene affect individuals with low vs. high MAOA?

A

The relationship is stronger for individuals with low MAOA than high

This implies that those with low MAOA are more susceptible to the effects of maltreatment.

Psychology (5 decks)

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