Psychology Flashcards

Question

What is a Hypothesis?

Answer 1

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. ## Footnote Hypotheses are often formulated based on theories and are tested through research.

Answer 2

Evidence gathered from testing indicates that the hypothesis is likely true. ## Footnote This often leads to further testing and refinement of the theory.

Answer 3

Evidence gathered from testing indicates that the hypothesis is likely false. ## Footnote Rejection of a hypothesis can lead to the modification of the original theory.

Answer 4

The iterative process of forming a hypothesis, testing it, and refining theories based on the results. ## Footnote This scientific method is crucial for advancing psychological research.

Answer 5

The real world and academic literature ## Footnote Both aspects guide researchers in formulating their inquiries.

Answer 6

To review the academic literature and begin to develop a theory ## Footnote This stage is crucial for understanding existing knowledge and forming a basis for new research.

Answer 7

It helps address real world problems ## Footnote Academic literature provides insights and frameworks that can be applied to practical issues.

Answer 8

[review the academic literature and begin to develop a theory]

Answer 9

False ## Footnote Academic literature plays a significant role in shaping research inquiries.

Answer 10

Psychology is a scientific discipline ## Footnote Psychology focuses on understanding the mind and behavior.

Answer 11

To devise theories and ask questions to help us understand the mind and behavior ## Footnote This focus enables the development of a deeper understanding of psychological processes.

Answer 12

Conclusions guide future research and can be applied to real-world problems ## Footnote This application can lead to practical solutions in various fields.

Answer 13

No, theories are not facts and are open to being questioned ## Footnote This characteristic allows for the continuous evolution of psychological understanding.

Answer 14

Psychology can massively impact our world and help better society ## Footnote This impact can manifest in various forms, including mental health improvements and social interventions.

Answer 15

Individuals are part of the process of psychological inquiry and development ## Footnote This involvement underscores the collaborative nature of psychological research.

Answer 16

Constructs are broad terms for a complicated collection of internal processes and behaviors ## Footnote Constructs represent tendencies to think, feel, and act in certain ways, but not consistently.

Answer 17

No, psychological constructs cannot be directly observed ## Footnote They often represent internal processes such as thoughts and feelings.

Answer 18

Extraversion ## Footnote Extraverts may be outgoing but can also be quiet in certain situations, like lectures.

Answer 19

Emotional states cannot be measured with a ruler ## Footnote This highlights the complexity of psychological constructs.

Answer 20

Personality characteristics are not always expressed the same way ## Footnote This variability complicates the observation of constructs.

Answer 21

thoughts and feelings

Answer 22

False ## Footnote Constructs indicate tendencies that may not be expressed all the time.

Answer 23

They are difficult to observe ## Footnote This emphasizes the complexity of psychological constructs.

Answer 24

It is important to be clear about what we are exploring.

Answer 25

Description of an abstract property in terms of a concrete condition that can be measured.

Answer 26

Positive emotionality should be seen as the core of Extraversion with a high degree of sociability.

Answer 27

Dominant, talkative, sociable, and warm.

Answer 28

[concrete condition that can be measured]

Answer 29

Academic literature ## Footnote Academic literature provides more specialized definitions than dictionaries.

Answer 30

They are not specialized ## Footnote Dictionary definitions may lack the depth and context needed for academic purposes.

Answer 31

Identifying key behaviours and constructs ## Footnote This includes having clear definitions of what is being explored.

Answer 32

The underlying questions ## Footnote It's important to ensure that the questions are relevant and meaningful.

Answer 33

False ## Footnote This statement lacks depth and specificity for a research question.

Answer 34

Move away from your original observation/news story ## Footnote This allows for broader exploration of related topics.

Answer 35

The underlying psychological question of interest ## Footnote Understanding the psychological aspect is crucial for framing effective questions.

Answer 36

[questions]

Answer 37

'Hypothetical account of how and why a phenomenon occurs, usually in the form of a statement about the causal relationship between 2 or more properties' Schacter et al. (2020, p. 48) ## Footnote Theories serve to explain various phenomena and can guide further research.

Answer 38

A reason as to why we believe a theory to be the case ## Footnote Rationales become more important as you progress through the course and expand your RDA knowledge.

Answer 39

To start developing theories ## Footnote This process involves hypothesizing causal relationships based on the question posed.

Answer 40

hypothetical

Answer 41

False ## Footnote Rationales become increasingly important as knowledge expands.

Answer 42

The types of questions we ask ## Footnote Different questions lead to different psychological approaches.

Answer 43

The processes behind decision making and how to change these ## Footnote This perspective focuses on mental processes.

Answer 44

Traits approach, considered more static and therefore less subject to change ## Footnote This approach looks at stable characteristics of individuals.

Answer 45

How others influence our decisions ## Footnote It includes the study of peer influence.

Answer 46

False ## Footnote The same topics can be approached in very different ways.

Answer 47

Vienna Circle

Answer 48

Outlining if an idea was meaningful or if it was nonsense

Answer 49

* Definitions * Verifiable empirical statements

Answer 50

A triangle has three sides

Answer 51

Eating cheese before bed gives you nightmares

Answer 52

If they could be verifiable

Answer 53

Vienna Circle

Answer 54

Outlining if an idea was meaningful or if it was nonsense

Answer 55

* Definitions * Verifiable empirical statements

Answer 56

A triangle has three sides

Answer 57

Eating cheese before bed gives you nightmares

Answer 58

If they could be verifiable

Answer 59

'The practice of relying on observation.' ## Footnote Stanovich, 2013, p. 9

Answer 60

Facts are derived by observation and experience as opposed to theory.

Answer 61

It comes from the Greek 'emperos'.

Answer 62

As a series of logical states that could be observed and verified.

Answer 63

Scaling ## Footnote Logical positivism struggles with generalizing individual observations to broader claims.

Answer 64

Georgia the swan is white ## Footnote This statement can be observed and verified directly.

Answer 65

Cannot easily verify general claims ## Footnote General claims, such as 'all swans are white', cannot be readily verified through observation.

Answer 66

Process of inferring rules based on a set of particular observations ## Footnote Induction allows for generalizations from specific cases, despite the limitations of verification.

Answer 67

Karl Popper

Answer 68

He argued that observing many instances does not guarantee future instances.

Answer 69

It can falsify the view that all swans are white.

Answer 70

Proposing a theory and seeking to falsify it.

Answer 71

It is not proof, but support for the theory.

Answer 72

It means we need to amend the theory.

Answer 73

No, a theory cannot be definitively proven.

Answer 74

As a critical community ## Footnote Popper emphasized that the scientific community should challenge and test theories.

Answer 75

Put forward theories and attempt to break them ## Footnote This process is essential for scientific advancement.

Answer 76

Science ## Footnote Popper argued that verification does not lead to genuine scientific progress.

Answer 77

Advancement of knowledge and understanding ## Footnote This practice helps refine scientific theories.

Answer 78

Verisimilitude ## Footnote Verisimilitude refers to the degree of truthlikeness in theories.

Answer 79

Theory 1 ## Footnote This illustrates the process of scientific refinement.

Answer 80

Thomas Kuhn ## Footnote Thomas Kuhn is known for his work on the philosophy of science.

Answer 81

'Structure of Scientific Revolution' (1962) ## Footnote This book discusses the nature of scientific progress and paradigm shifts.

Answer 82

The Greek for 'pattern' or 'template' ## Footnote The concept of paradigms is central to Kuhn's theory of scientific revolutions.

Answer 83

Learned/developed by familiarity with successful application of theory ## Footnote This emphasizes the role of established theories in shaping scientific methods.

Answer 84

They form a single broad paradigm ## Footnote This indicates a consolidation of scientific understanding over time.

Answer 85

Broad but rigid structure ## Footnote This suggests that while paradigms can encompass a wide range of theories, they also impose constraints on scientific inquiry.

Answer 86

'Normal science' occurs by forcing all ideas into the accepted paradigm. ## Footnote This refers to the phase where existing theories are tested and refined without questioning the foundational assumptions.

Answer 87

The abandonment of critical discourse is what makes a science. ## Footnote Critical discourse involves questioning and challenging existing paradigms, which is essential for scientific progress.

Answer 88

They are rejected and considered the mistake of the researcher, not the paradigm. ## Footnote This highlights the resistance within scientific communities to change established theories.

Answer 89

The paradigm reaches crisis and no longer functions. ## Footnote This crisis may lead to the questioning of the paradigm's validity and the search for alternatives.

Answer 90

A pre-paradigmatic state until a new paradigm is accepted. ## Footnote This state is characterized by uncertainty and exploration of new ideas.

Answer 91

He likened it to a conversion experience. ## Footnote This analogy emphasizes the profound change in perspective that accompanies the adoption of a new paradigm.

Answer 92

A fundamental change in the basic concepts and practices of a scientific discipline.

Answer 93

Flat earth to round earth.

Answer 94

The Copernican System.

Answer 95

Quantum mechanics.

Answer 96

That science jumps forward rather than progresses gradually.

Answer 97

A fundamental change in the basic concepts and practices of a scientific discipline.

Answer 98

Flat earth to round earth.

Answer 99

The Copernican System.

Answer 100

Quantum mechanics.

Answer 101

That science jumps forward rather than progresses gradually.

Answer 102

Their differing views on scientific theories and paradigms.

Answer 103

All observations are theory laden.

Answer 104

Falsification

Answer 105

challenged

Answer 106

The ability to challenge and falsify theories.

Answer 107

It should be rarely challenged.

Answer 108

Imre Lakatos ## Footnote Lakatos is known for his contributions to the philosophy of science.

Answer 109

Set of assumptions which cannot be abandoned/changed ## Footnote The Hard Core forms the foundation of a research programme.

Answer 110

Items that did not support Hard Core ## Footnote Auxiliary hypotheses can be adjusted without affecting the Hard Core.

Answer 111

research programmes

Answer 112

False ## Footnote The Hard Core is meant to remain constant.

Answer 113

A foundational set of beliefs or theories that cannot be abandoned or altered without rejecting the entire core. ## Footnote Similar to a Kuhnian Paradigm.

Answer 114

Evidence that threatens the core but does not outright reject it as Popper argued. ## Footnote Exploring these 'failures' can lead to significant insights about the central core.

Answer 115

False ## Footnote Altering the Hard Core would mean rejecting the whole core.

Answer 116

We can learn a lot about the central core. ## Footnote This exploration provides insights into the foundational beliefs.

Answer 117

There is no real unified idea as to what constitutes science.

Answer 118

Only ideas that can be feasibly tested are considered science.

Answer 119

We need to be able to falsify.

Answer 120

Observation is key.

Answer 121

Ideas/data cannot be considered without theory.

Answer 122

Science is a process, which doesn't lead to the end fact.

Answer 123

There are pinch points which challenge our understanding and change our approach.

Answer 124

Science must be publicly available.

Answer 125

Empiricism/Observation is key ## Footnote Empiricism emphasizes the importance of observation and experience in the formation of knowledge.

Answer 126

Ideas/data ## Footnote Theories provide a framework for interpreting data and understanding observations.

Answer 127

Science is a process, which doesn't lead to the end fact ## Footnote This indicates that science is ongoing and subject to revision.

Answer 128

They challenge our understanding and change our approach ## Footnote Pinch points refer to critical moments or findings that prompt reevaluation of existing theories.

Answer 129

Publicly available ## Footnote Transparency allows for peer review and validation of scientific findings.

Answer 130

Only ideas that can be feasibly tested ## Footnote Testability is a fundamental criterion for scientific inquiry.

Answer 131

We need to be able to falsify ## Footnote Falsifiability allows for the possibility of disproving a hypothesis, which is essential for scientific credibility.

Answer 132

False ## Footnote The concept of science is diverse and varies across different fields and disciplines.

Answer 133

publicly ## Footnote Public availability is crucial for scientific progress and collaboration.

Answer 134

No ## Footnote Science is iterative and always open to new evidence and interpretations.

Answer 135

Empiricism has a history in psychology, with notable figures including Ebbinghaus, Stroop, Skinner, Milgram, Zimbardo, and Bandura.

Answer 136

No, empiricism itself does not make a topic scientific.

Answer 137

You would be no nearer to understanding the world.

Answer 138

Observations must be 'systematic'.

Answer 139

A systematic approach.

Answer 140

How to base your work on systematic empiricism.

Answer 141

systematic.

Answer 142

Scientists are unbiased in their observations, measurements, and experiments.

Answer 143

Observation justifies (or not) a theory the scientist already holds.

Answer 144

Theories determine what kinds of data to collect.

Answer 145

Because biases can influence the formation and justification of the theory.

Answer 146

The use of theory and whether we can be truly unbiased in science ## Footnote This debate highlights the challenges of objectivity in scientific inquiry.

Answer 147

Theories include and reflect the biases, prejudices, values, and assumptions of the individual scientist ## Footnote This suggests that personal perspectives can influence scientific outcomes.

Answer 148

They influence the development and interpretation of psychological theories ## Footnote Androcentrism refers to male-centered perspectives, while ethnocentrism involves evaluating other cultures based on one's own.

Answer 149

Popper ## Footnote Karl Popper is known for his work in the philosophy of science, particularly regarding falsifiability.

Answer 150

It is hard to be consistently criticised ## Footnote This reflects the human tendency to defend one's own ideas and theories.

Answer 151

People naturally wish to defend their theories ## Footnote This tendency can lead to confirmation bias, where individuals favor information that confirms their existing beliefs.

Answer 152

Pre-paradigmatic ## Footnote Kuhn suggests that psychology has not yet established a unified framework like other sciences.

Answer 153

The behaviourist movement ## Footnote The behaviourist movement focused on observable behaviors and was prominent before declining in influence.

Answer 154

Darwin's theory of evolution ## Footnote Although Darwin's theory could unify various psychological concepts, it is not widely accepted as the central view in psychology.

Answer 155

Smaller crises ## Footnote These crises reflect the evolving nature of psychological theories and paradigms over time.

Answer 156

Pre-paradigmatic ## Footnote Kuhn suggests that psychology has not yet established a unified framework like other sciences.

Answer 157

The behaviourist movement ## Footnote The behaviourist movement focused on observable behaviors and was prominent before declining in influence.

Answer 158

Darwin's theory of evolution ## Footnote Although Darwin's theory could unify various psychological concepts, it is not widely accepted as the central view in psychology.

Answer 159

Smaller crises ## Footnote These crises reflect the evolving nature of psychological theories and paradigms over time.

Answer 160

The scientific study of experiences which, if they are as they seem to be, are in principle outside the realm of human capabilities as presently conceived by conventional scientists ## Footnote (Irwin & Watts, 2007)

Answer 161

* Study of ghosts * Paranormal activity * Extrasensory perception

Answer 162

They are often extremely robust.

Answer 163

Fear of rebuke.

Answer 164

[ghosts, paranormal activity, extrasensory perception]

Answer 165

Psychoanalysis is difficult to test ## Footnote Popper argues that theories should be falsifiable to be considered scientific.

Answer 166

It is not falsifiable ## Footnote Popper's critique centered on the inability to prove Adler's theory wrong.

Answer 167

He analyzed it in terms of his theory of inferiority feelings ## Footnote Adler maintained that his extensive experience allowed him to validate his theory.

Answer 168

By questioning the validity of adding a new case to his experience ## Footnote Popper remarked that Adler's assertion of experience was not a solid foundation for scientific theory.

Answer 169

Can it be considered a science? ## Footnote This question stems from the issues of testability and falsifiability in psychoanalysis.

Answer 170

Replication ## Footnote Replication allows for the verification of results in scientific research.

Answer 171

We tend to question the central theory ## Footnote Non-replicable phenomena lead to skepticism about the underlying theories.

Answer 172

Falsification ## Footnote Falsification is the principle that a theory must be testable and can be proven false.

Answer 173

No ## Footnote Even in hard sciences, replication is not guaranteed.

Answer 174

The researcher ## Footnote This reflects a tendency to protect the core idea despite replication issues.

Answer 175

Paradigms ## Footnote Kuhn's paradigms refer to the frameworks within which scientists operate, affecting how they interpret data.

Answer 176

question the central theory

Answer 177

False ## Footnote In psychology, replication failures often lead to questioning the theory rather than blaming the researcher.

Answer 178

BPS Code of ethics and conduct, BPS Code of human research ethics ## Footnote The BPS Code of ethics and conduct determines professional behaviour as a psychologist, while the BPS Code of human research ethics addresses ethical decision making when conducting research with human participants.

Answer 179

Professional behaviour as a psychologist ## Footnote This code provides a framework for psychologists to ensure their conduct meets ethical standards.

Answer 180

Ethical decision making when planning and conducting research with human participants ## Footnote This code guides researchers in ensuring the rights and welfare of participants are protected.

Answer 181

Outline general principles of behaviour for those practicing as a psychologist ## Footnote These guidelines help psychologists maintain a standard of practice that aligns with ethical norms.

Answer 182

Honesty & Accuracy ## Footnote This includes being honest and accurate in representing professional affiliations and qualifications, conveying professional conclusions and opinions, claiming ownership or credit for research.

Answer 183

* Representing professional affiliations and qualifications * Conveying professional conclusions and opinions * Claiming ownership or credit for research

Answer 184

Avoiding Exploitation & Conflicts of Interest ## Footnote Professionals should remain aware that dual relationships may result in problems.

Answer 185

False ## Footnote Professionals should avoid forming relationships that can impair professional objectivity.

Answer 186

Refrain from sexual or romantic relationships with persons to whom you are providing a professional service ## Footnote This is crucial for maintaining ethical standards in professional settings.

Answer 187

harassment

Answer 188

Recognise all forms of harassment, single event or repeated events ## Footnote Professionals must be aware of both single occurrences and patterns of harassment.

Answer 189

Addressing Ethical Misconduct ## Footnote Professionals should engage colleagues to report misconduct and bring allegations without breaches of confidentiality.

Answer 190

Cooperate and engage colleagues regarding misconduct ## Footnote This includes bringing allegations of misconduct without breaching confidentiality.

Answer 191

Withdraw themselves or their data before, during, or after the experiment ## Footnote This ensures autonomy and respect for participants' rights.

Answer 192

Anonymized ## Footnote Anonymization helps protect participant identities.

Answer 193

Informed consent ## Footnote Participants must have sufficient information to make a knowledgeable decision.

Answer 194

Confidentially ## Footnote This ensures that personal information is not disclosed without permission.

Answer 195

False ## Footnote Participants should not be deceived unless essential for the experiment.

Answer 196

Psychological or physical discomfort ## Footnote This is to protect the well-being of participants.

Answer 197

* Withdraw * Consent - informed * Anonymity * Confidentiality * Deception * Protection from harm ## Footnote These principles guide ethical decision-making in research.

Answer 198

Respect for the autonomy, privacy, and dignity of individuals and communities ## Footnote This standard emphasizes the duty of psychologists to prioritize the rights and dignity of their participants.

Answer 199

A clear duty to participants, including respect for their knowledge, insight, experience, and expertise ## Footnote Psychologists are expected to acknowledge the contributions of participants in research.

Answer 200

* Age * Disability * Gender reassignment * Marriage and civil partnership * Pregnancy and maternity * Race * Religion and belief * Sex * Sexual orientation * Education * Language * Socio-economic status ## Footnote These differences are essential for ensuring ethical treatment in psychological practice.

Answer 201

True ## Footnote Respecting cultural differences is a key component of ethical standards in psychology.

Answer 202

participants ## Footnote This duty includes ensuring their rights and dignity are upheld.

Answer 203

Commitment to ensuring high-quality and accountable standards in research ## Footnote Scientific integrity emphasizes the importance of ethical standards in the research process.

Answer 204

Ensuring accountability and high quality in research ## Footnote This includes adherence to scientific design and consideration of potential risks.

Answer 205

The scientific design of the research ## Footnote Quality also involves considering potential risks of harm and protocols for addressing difficulties.

Answer 206

To ensure clarity in what the research intends to achieve ## Footnote Transparency helps stakeholders understand the objectives and potential impacts of the research.

Answer 207

[accountable and of sufficiently high quality]

Answer 208

False ## Footnote Scientific integrity includes considerations for potential risks of harm.

Answer 209

To support beneficial outcomes ## Footnote Beneficial outcomes are defined as those that respect the dignity and integrity of persons and contribute to the common good.

Answer 210

Ethics standards should aim to support beneficial outcomes that reflect respect for dignity and integrity ## Footnote This includes respect for individuals and groups.

Answer 211

[beneficial outcomes]

Answer 212

False ## Footnote Ethical standards also encompass collective dignity and the common good.

Answer 213

Outcomes that support and reflect respect for dignity and integrity ## Footnote This includes contributions to the common good.

Answer 214

The benefits of their work at all stages, from inception through to dissemination.

Answer 215

Harm to research participants.

Answer 216

Robust risk assessment and management protocols.

Answer 217

The risk of harm should be no greater than that encountered in ordinary life.

Answer 218

normal lifestyles.

Answer 219

René Descartes ## Footnote Descartes was a French philosopher known for his influential thoughts on the relationship between mind and body.

Answer 220

Are the body and mind separate? ## Footnote This question relates to the philosophical inquiry about the existence of a soul distinct from the body.

Answer 221

* Physical matter (res extensa) * Non-material, non-extended mind (res cogitans) ## Footnote These terms describe the physical and mental aspects of existence according to Cartesian dualism.

Answer 222

Cogito ergo sum ## Footnote This translates to 'I think, therefore I am,' emphasizing the connection between thought and existence.

Answer 223

No consciousness without a body that carries it ## Footnote This implies that the mind cannot exist independently of the physical body.

Answer 224

Cartesian dualism ## Footnote This term reflects Descartes' views on the separation of mind and body.

Answer 225

True ## Footnote Descartes is known for his assertion that knowledge is fundamental to existence.

Answer 226

René Descartes ## Footnote Descartes was a French philosopher known for his influential thoughts on the relationship between mind and body.

Answer 227

Are the body and mind separate? ## Footnote This question relates to the philosophical inquiry about the existence of a soul distinct from the body.

Answer 228

* Physical matter (res extensa) * Non-material, non-extended mind (res cogitans) ## Footnote These terms describe the physical and mental aspects of existence according to Cartesian dualism.

Answer 229

Cogito ergo sum ## Footnote This translates to 'I think, therefore I am,' emphasizing the connection between thought and existence.

Answer 230

No consciousness without a body that carries it ## Footnote This implies that the mind cannot exist independently of the physical body.

Answer 231

Cartesian dualism ## Footnote This term reflects Descartes' views on the separation of mind and body.

Answer 232

True ## Footnote Descartes is known for his assertion that knowledge is fundamental to existence.

Answer 233

René Descartes ## Footnote Published in 1646, this work discusses the nature of emotions.

Answer 234

Animal spirits are substances that connect muscles and the brain to trigger 'passions' ## Footnote Descartes believed these spirits played a role in emotional responses.

Answer 235

* Wonder * Love * Hatred * Desire * Joy * Sadness ## Footnote These emotions are linked to the concept of animal spirits.

Answer 236

It serves as a highway for animal spirits ## Footnote This implies that the central nervous system plays a crucial role in emotion and action.

Answer 237

Via the pineal gland in the brain ## Footnote Descartes viewed the pineal gland as the point of interaction between the mind and body.

Answer 238

He believed the brain to be a working machine ## Footnote This mechanical view foreshadowed later developments in psychology and neuroscience.

Answer 239

False ## Footnote Descartes' theories were developed before the concept of evolution was widely accepted.

Answer 240

The debate contrasts nativists, who believe in innate knowledge, with empiricists, who argue that knowledge comes from experience. ## Footnote This debate continues to influence various areas of psychology, including language acquisition.

Answer 241

Leibniz ## Footnote Leibniz argued that everyone is born with innate knowledge and that experience merely liberates ideas already present in the mind.

Answer 242

They believe it is impossible to derive abstract concepts from experience. ## Footnote Nativists hold that certain ideas are inherent and not learned from sensory experiences.

Answer 243

Empiricists believe that all knowledge comes from experience impacting the mind. ## Footnote Key figures include Locke, Berkeley, and Hume.

Answer 244

* Locke * Berkeley * Hume ## Footnote These philosophers emphasized that sensory experience is the only true knowledge of the world.

Answer 245

If ideas were innate, everyone should have them regardless of age or intelligence. ## Footnote This challenges the nativist position by suggesting that innate ideas cannot be universally experienced.

Answer 246

[liberate ideas that were in the mind already]

Answer 247

False ## Footnote The debate continues to exist in modern psychology.

Answer 248

'The Origin of Species'

Answer 249

Natural selection

Answer 250

* The Principle of Variation * The Principle of Inheritance * The Principle of Adaptation

Answer 251

All species show variation in their phenotype

Answer 252

A part of this variation is heritable

Answer 253

Competition among individuals for scarce resources occurs

Answer 254

Survival of the fittest

Answer 255

Adaptive behavior that is helpful for survival

Answer 256

The mind is shaped by the individual's behavior in their environment

Answer 257

Study of the relationship between incoming physical (sensory) stimuli and people's responses to or experiences of them. ## Footnote Focuses on how individuals respond to stimuli rather than the stimuli themselves.

Answer 258

Fechner ## Footnote Fechner lived from 1801 to 1887 and is considered a key figure in the beginnings of psychology.

Answer 259

Sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity. ## Footnote This law suggests that as stimulus intensity increases, more of it is needed to detect a change.

Answer 260

More is needed to detect a change.

Answer 261

To discover a mathematical relationship between items.

Answer 262

Used in consumer behaviors.

Answer 263

[incoming physical (sensory) stimuli]

Answer 264

A pioneer in the study of memory and learning ## Footnote Ebbinghaus conducted significant research on memory using himself as the subject.

Answer 265

1879-1880 ## Footnote He later replicated the procedure from 1883-1884.

Answer 266

Nonsense syllables ## Footnote This helped him analyze memory without the influence of existing knowledge.

Answer 267

'Learning to criterion' ## Footnote This concept refers to the idea of learning until a certain standard or criterion is met.

Answer 268

Learning curve and forgetting curve ## Footnote These curves illustrate how information is acquired and lost over time.

Answer 269

The tendency to remember the first items on a list ## Footnote This effect is part of the broader study of memory recall.

Answer 270

The tendency to remember the last items on a list ## Footnote Together with the primacy effect, it explains how items are recalled differently based on their position.

Answer 271

memory and learning ## Footnote His research laid the groundwork for modern psychology.

Answer 272

False ## Footnote He gathered data for more than a year.

Answer 273

Ebbinghaus

Answer 274

The entire procedure of his memory studies

Answer 275

Nonsense syllables

Answer 276

'Learning to criterion'

Answer 277

Learning curve and forgetting curve

Answer 278

The tendency to remember the first items on a list

Answer 279

The tendency to remember the last items on a list

Answer 280

Primacy and recency

Answer 281

Wundt in 1879 at Leipzig University

Answer 282

'Philosophische Studien' ('Philosophical Studies')

Answer 283

To systematically vary the stimuli and conditions that elicited different mental states

Answer 284

Introspection

Answer 285

Only trained, advanced Psychology students

Answer 286

[psychologist]

Answer 287

Different observers can provide different responses to the same stimuli

Answer 288

Methods perhaps too subjective by today's standards

Answer 289

A student of Wundt and a key figure in structuralism ## Footnote Titchener studied under Wundt from 1890 to 1892.

Answer 290

They are composed of mental elements.

Answer 291

'The experimental psychologist should unravel the elemental processes from the tangle of experience' (Titchener, 1898).

Answer 292

* Discover how many processes there were * Identify the elements of these processes * Explain how they work together.

Answer 293

He likened sensations to structures, similar to elements in chemistry.

Answer 294

To analyze the laws governing the connections between the elements of the mind.

Answer 295

The connections between the mind and the nervous system.

Answer 296

Margaret Floy Washburn.

Answer 297

She was the first woman to receive a PhD in psychology (1894).

Answer 298

* Sensations (discernments) * Images (thoughts) * Affections (emotions) ## Footnote Titchener's theory emphasizes these components as fundamental to understanding consciousness.

Answer 299

* Quality * Intensity * Duration * Clearness ## Footnote These aspects define how sensations are experienced and perceived.

Answer 300

Distinguishing elements from one another ## Footnote Quality helps to identify different sensations.

Answer 301

How strong/bright/loud a stimulus is ## Footnote Intensity measures the strength of a sensation.

Answer 302

How long a sensation lasts ## Footnote Duration indicates the temporal aspect of a sensation.

Answer 303

Attention in consciousness ## Footnote Clearness is related to how focused a sensation is in one's awareness.

Answer 304

Dynamic purposes of psychological experience rather than its structure ## Footnote Functionalism emphasizes the functions and processes of mental states.

Answer 305

Darwin ## Footnote Darwin's theories on evolution and adaptation influenced the understanding of psychological phenomena.

Answer 306

They are not isolated from the environment; they are influenced and interrelated by changing behaviour in a complex environment ## Footnote This perspective emphasizes the context in which psychological processes occur.

Answer 307

The Principles of Psychology ## Footnote Published in 1890, this work laid foundational concepts for psychology.

Answer 308

As the science of mental life ## Footnote This definition encompasses both conscious and unconscious processes.

Answer 309

dynamic purposes ## Footnote This highlights the functional aspect of mental processes.

Answer 310

False ## Footnote Functionalism emphasizes the connection between psychological phenomena and their environmental context.

Answer 311

William James

Answer 312

* Perception of a stimulus/situation * Bodily changes result from the perception of a situation * Recognition of the bodily changes produce subjective feelings/emotions

Answer 313

A cohesive understanding of life

Answer 314

Pavlov ## Footnote Pavlov's work in 1903 laid the foundation for classical conditioning.

Answer 315

A neutral stimulus associated with an unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that causes a conditioned response ## Footnote This process involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response.

Answer 316

Thorndike ## Footnote Thorndike's theories emerged in 1898 and 1911.

Answer 317

Learning that our behaviours may be associated with consequences ## Footnote This principle states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are likely to be repeated.

Answer 318

The behavior is more likely to occur in the future ## Footnote Positive reinforcement strengthens the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Answer 319

The behavior is avoided in the future ## Footnote Negative reinforcement or punishment leads to a decrease in the occurrence of a behavior.

Answer 320

conditioned stimulus ## Footnote This transformation is key to classical conditioning.

Answer 321

True ## Footnote Both concepts explain how behaviors are learned and modified.

Answer 322

* Psychology must be objective and exclude subjective data and interpretations. * To predict and control overt behaviour rather than describe and explain conscious mental states. * Remove distinction between humans and non-human animals.

Answer 323

Psychology should focus on predicting and controlling overt behaviour.

Answer 324

behaviour seen in other species.

Answer 325

It must be excluded from psychology.

Answer 326

'Little Albert' concept ## Footnote This experiment demonstrated classical conditioning in children.

Answer 327

Behavior is a 'reflex' to our environment ## Footnote This suggests that behavior is influenced by external stimuli.

Answer 328

Conditioning could be generalised ## Footnote This means that learned behaviors can apply to similar situations.

Answer 329

Children are a product of their experiences ## Footnote This implies that environmental factors play a significant role in development.

Answer 330

Could shape any child to become; doctor, lawyer, artist etc ## Footnote This reflects the belief in the power of conditioning to influence career paths.

Answer 331

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) ## Footnote Freud's work laid the foundation for the field of psychology as we know it today.

Answer 332

Importance of unconscious mental processes ## Footnote This theory emphasizes how unconscious thoughts shape feelings, thoughts, and behaviors.

Answer 333

Bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness ## Footnote This process helps individuals better understand psychological disorders.

Answer 334

[therapeutic] ## Footnote It is utilized to treat psychological issues by analyzing unconscious thoughts.

Answer 335

Patients suffering with hysteria ## Footnote One notable patient was 'Anna', who contributed to Freud's theories.

Answer 336

Inner and unconscious forces, memories, and conflicts ## Footnote These elements are often beyond a person's awareness or control.

Answer 337

Can be brought into conscious thought ## Footnote This contrasts with the unconscious, which cannot be accessed directly.

Answer 338

Cannot be brought into conscious thought ## Footnote It contains thoughts and feelings that are not accessible to awareness.

Answer 339

Special techniques such as: * Free association * Dream interpretation * Transference ## Footnote These methods are used in psychodynamic therapy.

Answer 340

Highly influential on later personality ## Footnote Early experiences shape the development of personality traits.

Answer 341

No, they are not synonymous ## Footnote They represent different aspects of psychological understanding.

Answer 342

Unconscious and impulsive, pleasure-seeking part of the brain ## Footnote The ID operates on the pleasure principle.

Answer 343

Conscious and mediates between the ID and superego ## Footnote The Ego functions according to the reality principle.

Answer 344

The morally correct part of the mind ## Footnote It deals with consciousness and upholding values.

Answer 345

Inner and unconscious forces, memories, and conflicts ## Footnote These elements are often beyond a person's awareness or control.

Answer 346

Can be brought into conscious thought ## Footnote This contrasts with the unconscious, which cannot be accessed directly.

Answer 347

Cannot be brought into conscious thought ## Footnote It contains thoughts and feelings that are not accessible to awareness.

Answer 348

Special techniques such as: * Free association * Dream interpretation * Transference ## Footnote These methods are used in psychodynamic therapy.

Answer 349

Highly influential on later personality ## Footnote Early experiences shape the development of personality traits.

Answer 350

No, they are not synonymous ## Footnote They represent different aspects of psychological understanding.

Answer 351

Unconscious and impulsive, pleasure-seeking part of the brain ## Footnote The ID operates on the pleasure principle.

Answer 352

Conscious and mediates between the ID and superego ## Footnote The Ego functions according to the reality principle.

Answer 353

The morally correct part of the mind ## Footnote It deals with consciousness and upholding values.

Answer 354

Wertheimer, Kohler, and Koffka ## Footnote Founded in Germany in 1912.

Answer 355

The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Answer 356

* Form * Shape * Essence * Manner

Answer 357

Francis Cecil Sumner ## Footnote Francis Cecil Sumner earned his PhD in 1920.

Answer 358

1920 ## Footnote Sumner's accomplishment marked a significant milestone in psychology.

Answer 359

Understanding and eliminating racial bias in the administration of justice ## Footnote His work focused on social justice and psychology.

Answer 360

Wrote abstracts for the Journal of Social Psychology and the Psychological Bulletin ## Footnote His contributions helped advance the field of psychology.

Answer 361

An important figure in the development and measurement of personality traits.

Answer 362

A measure developed by Allport to assess personality traits.

Answer 363

Personality: A Psychological Interpretation.

Answer 364

Objective self, fundamental adjustment patterns that an individual forms over the course of their experience.

Answer 365

As a unique combination of traits.

Answer 366

A relatively stable disposition to behave in a particular and consistent way.

Answer 367

Pre-existing dispositions that reliably trigger behavior.

Answer 368

The difference between a child's learning progress with help or guidance and the child's learning achievement without guidance of an adult.

Answer 369

Vygotsky (1896-1934)

Answer 370

Speech is a mediator between an individual and the outside world.

Answer 371

Language is used to change both the external and 'internal' psychological world.

Answer 372

Observational methods.

Answer 373

[guidance]

Answer 374

[what a learner can do with guidance]

Answer 375

The difference between a child's learning progress with help or guidance and the child's learning achievement without guidance of an adult.

Answer 376

Vygotsky (1896-1934)

Answer 377

Speech is a mediator between an individual and the outside world.

Answer 378

Language is used to change both the external and 'internal' psychological world.

Answer 379

Observational methods.

Answer 380

[guidance]

Answer 381

[what a learner can do with guidance]

Answer 382

Vygotsky (1896-1934) ## Footnote Vygotsky's work emphasizes the importance of social interactions in learning.

Answer 383

The difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can do with guidance ## Footnote This concept highlights the potential for learning with appropriate support.

Answer 384

Present learner with a more knowledgeable other ## Footnote This method encourages learning through observation and guidance.

Answer 385

They allow the learner to observe and practice skills with a tutor ## Footnote Social interactions facilitate the learning process by providing real-time feedback.

Answer 386

Providing supportive activities as learners are guided through the Zone of Proximal Development ## Footnote Scaffolding helps to build independence in learners gradually.

Answer 387

social interactions ## Footnote These interactions are crucial for effective learning and skill acquisition.

Answer 388

False ## Footnote Scaffolding is an ongoing process that adapts to the learner's needs.

Answer 389

The interaction between social context and cognitive development ## Footnote Vygotsky believed that learning is inherently social.

Answer 390

Jean Piaget

Answer 391

Children's cognitive processes differ from that of adults

Answer 392

The child's developing brain, skills, and social environment

Answer 393

Assimilation

Answer 394

Accommodation

Answer 395

adaptation

Answer 396

* Assimilation * Accommodation

Answer 397

Children's cognitive processes differ from that of adults ## Footnote Piaget emphasized the distinct ways children think compared to adults.

Answer 398

The child's developing brain, skills, and social environment ## Footnote Piaget believed that cognitive development is not uniform but varies based on these factors.

Answer 399

Adopt new objects into old mental patterns ## Footnote Assimilation helps children integrate new experiences using existing cognitive frameworks.

Answer 400

Modify one's mental structures to fit new demands of the environment ## Footnote Accommodation allows for the adjustment of cognitive schemas when encountering new information.

Answer 401

adaptation ## Footnote Adaptation involves both assimilation and accommodation to understand the world.

Answer 402

A theoretical and practical field in psychology concerned with an individual's uniqueness ## Footnote It emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization.

Answer 403

'Third force' refers to humanistic psychology, which follows behaviorism and psychodynamic approaches ## Footnote It emerged in response to the limitations of the first two forces.

Answer 404

Psychodynamic approach is seen as pessimistic ## Footnote Humanistic psychology focuses on positive aspects of human nature.

Answer 405

Behaviorist approach is seen as too passive/robotic ## Footnote Humanistic psychology emphasizes active human experience.

Answer 406

Concerns over the loss of essence of human existence ## Footnote It seeks to reclaim the uniqueness and value of individuals.

Answer 407

1971 ## Footnote This recognition marked a significant milestone in the field.

Answer 408

Qualitative methodologies, specifically a phenomenological approach ## Footnote This approach focuses on individuals' subjective experiences.

Answer 409

Viktor E. Frankl ## Footnote Viktor Frankl is a prominent figure in psychology and is known for his contributions to humanistic psychology.

Answer 410

Humanistic theory of behaviour ## Footnote This theory emphasizes the inherent value and agency of individuals.

Answer 411

Finding meaning ## Footnote Frankl posits that the search for meaning is fundamental to human existence.

Answer 412

False ## Footnote Frankl asserts that life has meaning under all circumstances.

Answer 413

Freedom to find meaning in what we do ## Footnote This freedom is crucial for personal fulfillment and purpose.

Answer 414

During time in the Nazi concentration camps ## Footnote Frankl's experiences in the camps significantly shaped his understanding of meaning.

Answer 415

It is the primary motivation in life, not a secondary rationalization of instinctual drives ## Footnote Frankl emphasizes that each person's search for meaning is unique and essential.

Answer 416

It must be fulfilled by him alone ## Footnote This personal fulfillment is crucial for one's will to meaning.

Answer 417

ideals and values ## Footnote Frankl highlights the significance of personal ideals in one's search for meaning.

Answer 418

Achieving one's full potential, including creative activities ## Footnote Self-actualization is often considered the highest level of psychological development in Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

Answer 419

Prestige and feeling of accomplishment ## Footnote Esteem needs are part of Maslow's hierarchy and are important for self-esteem and personal worth.

Answer 420

Intimate relationships and friends ## Footnote These needs are crucial for emotional well-being and social connections.

Answer 421

Security and safety ## Footnote Safety needs include physical safety as well as financial and health security.

Answer 422

Food, water, warmth, rest ## Footnote These are the basic requirements for human survival and must be met first.

Answer 423

[psychological needs] ## Footnote Self-fulfillment needs refer to the desire to realize one's potential and seek personal growth.

Answer 424

Physiological needs and safety needs ## Footnote Basic needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs can be addressed.

Answer 425

The study of the causes and consequences of interpersonal behaviour. ## Footnote Social psychology examines how individuals influence and are influenced by others.

Answer 426

Le Bon, McDougall, Tarde ## Footnote These theorists believed in the instinctual nature of social behaviour.

Answer 427

People perform tasks differently when they are in groups than when they have to perform alone. ## Footnote Triplett's research involved swimmers and cyclists.

Answer 428

False ## Footnote Early theories believed in the instinctual nature of social behaviour.

Answer 429

causes ## Footnote This highlights the focus on understanding why individuals behave in social contexts.

Answer 430

Conformity ## Footnote Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms.

Answer 431

The line judgement studies ## Footnote These studies examined how individuals conform to group opinions even when they are incorrect.

Answer 432

Obedience ## Footnote Milgram's experiments demonstrated how far individuals would go in obeying authority figures, even to the point of causing harm to others.

Answer 433

False ## Footnote The line judgement studies focused on conformity, not obedience.

Answer 434

The conflict between personal conscience and obedience to authority ## Footnote Milgram's findings revealed the extent to which individuals are willing to comply with authority, even against their moral beliefs.

Answer 435

The scientific study of human mental processes and their role in thinking, emotions, and behaviour. ## Footnote Cognitive psychology focuses on understanding how people perceive, remember, think, and learn.

Answer 436

From the Latin word 'Cognoscere', meaning 'to know'. ## Footnote This origin reflects the focus of cognitive psychology on knowledge and understanding.

Answer 437

A shift from primarily behavioural to cognitive psychology in the late 1950s to 1970s. ## Footnote This period marked significant advancements in understanding mental processes.

Answer 438

It ignores concepts relating to cognition. ## Footnote Behaviourism focuses solely on observable behaviours, neglecting internal mental states.

Answer 439

7 +/- 2 ## Footnote Refers to the capacity limit of working memory as proposed by George A. Miller in 1956.

Answer 440

Miller et al. ## Footnote This book was published in 1960 and is significant in the field of cognitive psychology.

Answer 441

Mental life = information processing ## Footnote This assumption suggests that human cognition can be understood as a series of information processing activities.

Answer 442

As complex computing devices ## Footnote This analogy emphasizes the intricate nature of human cognitive functions.

Answer 443

Information processing based on a specific set of instructions or programs ## Footnote This perspective allows for a structured approach to understanding psychological phenomena.

Answer 444

A process that describes how individuals manage psychological operations ## Footnote This model highlights the iterative nature of cognitive processes.

Answer 445

40-60% ## Footnote This indicates that genetics play a significant role in antisocial behavior.

Answer 446

Behaviors can have a genetic basis but are only expressed depending on environmental factors ## Footnote This suggests that both genetics and environment influence behavior.

Answer 447

Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) ## Footnote The MAOA gene is linked to the regulation of neurotransmitters that may affect behavior.

Answer 448

The relationship is stronger for individuals with low MAOA than high ## Footnote This implies that those with low MAOA are more susceptible to the effects of maltreatment.

Psychology Flashcards

(501 cards)