Psychology Flashcards
What is Psychology?
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behaviour.
(Schacter, Gilbert, Wegner and Hood, 2012, p. 6)
What does ‘Mind’ refer to in psychology?
Mind is our internal experience.
What does ‘Behaviour’ refer to in psychology?
Behaviour is our observable actions.
What is Biological Psychology?
Explores how our biology interacts with psychological processes
This field examines the connection between biological factors and mental processes.
What does Cognitive Psychology study?
The study of mental processes, ‘thinking’ and problem solving
Cognitive psychology focuses on how we perceive, remember, and think about information.
What is the focus of Developmental Psychology?
Study of how psychological processes change over time
This field investigates psychological growth and change from infancy to adulthood.
What does Personality and Individual Differences examine?
The study of personality and how psychological processes vary from one person to the next
It looks at traits, behaviors, and characteristics that make individuals unique.
What is the main focus of Social Psychology?
Explores the psychological processes that operate when we interact with others
This field studies how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual or imagined presence of others.
What does the wide range of approaches in Psychology imply?
There is no right or wrong approach
What are the approaches in Psychology considered as?
Lenses through which we make sense of phenomena
Are the approaches in Psychology exclusive?
No, several lenses can be applied to the same topic
Name a key topic that can be studied from multiple psychological approaches.
Memory
What biological aspect can be explored in Psychology?
Biology
What underlying aspect does Psychology examine?
Underlying Processes
What developmental changes are explored in Psychology?
Development in kids/deterioration in old age
What factor does Psychology consider when examining performance differences?
Social influences
What is psychology?
The scientific study of mind and behaviour.
What is a pivotal question in psychology?
How we move our discipline forward.
How do psychologists advance their discipline?
By asking questions and addressing them using scientific methods.
What do psychologists develop to explore theories?
Theories.
What methods do psychologists use to develop theories?
Via observation and using previous literature.
Fill in the blank: Psychologists develop questions to explore _______.
[theory]
What is the definition of Psychology?
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Psychology encompasses various aspects of human experience, including thoughts, emotions, and actions.
What is a Theory in Psychology?
A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world.
Theories are based on a body of evidence and can be used to predict future occurrences.
What is a Hypothesis?
A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.
Hypotheses are often formulated based on theories and are tested through research.
What does it mean when a Hypothesis is supported?
Evidence gathered from testing indicates that the hypothesis is likely true.
This often leads to further testing and refinement of the theory.
What does it mean when a Hypothesis is rejected?
Evidence gathered from testing indicates that the hypothesis is likely false.
Rejection of a hypothesis can lead to the modification of the original theory.
What is the process that allows us to move forward in our understanding in Psychology?
The iterative process of forming a hypothesis, testing it, and refining theories based on the results.
This scientific method is crucial for advancing psychological research.
What influences the development of research questions?
The real world and academic literature
Both aspects guide researchers in formulating their inquiries.
What is the first stage of any research project?
To review the academic literature and begin to develop a theory
This stage is crucial for understanding existing knowledge and forming a basis for new research.
What purpose does academic literature serve in research?
It helps address real world problems
Academic literature provides insights and frameworks that can be applied to practical issues.
Fill in the blank: The first stage of any research project is to _______.
[review the academic literature and begin to develop a theory]
True or False: Academic literature is irrelevant when developing research questions.
False
Academic literature plays a significant role in shaping research inquiries.
What is psychology?
Psychology is a scientific discipline
Psychology focuses on understanding the mind and behavior.
What is the primary focus of psychology?
To devise theories and ask questions to help us understand the mind and behavior
This focus enables the development of a deeper understanding of psychological processes.
How do conclusions in psychology influence future research?
Conclusions guide future research and can be applied to real-world problems
This application can lead to practical solutions in various fields.
Are theories in psychology considered facts?
No, theories are not facts and are open to being questioned
This characteristic allows for the continuous evolution of psychological understanding.
What impact can psychology have on society?
Psychology can massively impact our world and help better society
This impact can manifest in various forms, including mental health improvements and social interventions.
What role do individuals play in the process of psychology?
Individuals are part of the process of psychological inquiry and development
This involvement underscores the collaborative nature of psychological research.
What are constructs in psychology?
Constructs are broad terms for a complicated collection of internal processes and behaviors
Constructs represent tendencies to think, feel, and act in certain ways, but not consistently.
Can psychological constructs be directly observed?
No, psychological constructs cannot be directly observed
They often represent internal processes such as thoughts and feelings.
Give an example of a psychological construct.
Extraversion
Extraverts may be outgoing but can also be quiet in certain situations, like lectures.
What challenges are associated with measuring emotional states?
Emotional states cannot be measured with a ruler
This highlights the complexity of psychological constructs.
How do personality characteristics relate to constructs?
Personality characteristics are not always expressed the same way
This variability complicates the observation of constructs.
Fill in the blank: Psychological constructs often include internal processes such as _______.
thoughts and feelings
True or False: Constructs always represent consistent behaviors.
False
Constructs indicate tendencies that may not be expressed all the time.
What is a challenge in observing attitudes towards crime and punishment?
They are difficult to observe
This emphasizes the complexity of psychological constructs.
What is the importance of clarity when developing a question?
It is important to be clear about what we are exploring.
Define Operational Definition.
Description of an abstract property in terms of a concrete condition that can be measured.
What do Watson and Clark argue about Extraversion?
Positive emotionality should be seen as the core of Extraversion with a high degree of sociability.
According to McCrea and John, what traits are associated with Extraversion?
Dominant, talkative, sociable, and warm.
Fill in the blank: An Operational Definition is a description of an abstract property in terms of a _______.
[concrete condition that can be measured]
True or False: It is unnecessary to operationalise terms when developing a question.
False
What is the preferred source for developing questions?
Academic literature
Academic literature provides more specialized definitions than dictionaries.
Why are dictionary definitions considered less preferable in developing questions?
They are not specialized
Dictionary definitions may lack the depth and context needed for academic purposes.
What is the first step in developing a question?
Identifying key behaviours and constructs
This includes having clear definitions of what is being explored.
What should be considered when thinking about questions?
The underlying questions
It’s important to ensure that the questions are relevant and meaningful.
True or False: ‘Fraud increasing’ is an acceptable question.
False
This statement lacks depth and specificity for a research question.
What might you need to do if you can’t find a suitable question?
Move away from your original observation/news story
This allows for broader exploration of related topics.
What is a critical aspect to identify in developing a question?
The underlying psychological question of interest
Understanding the psychological aspect is crucial for framing effective questions.
Fill in the blank: Once we have started to identify the key behaviours and constructs, we can start to think about our _______.
[questions]
What is a theory?
‘Hypothetical account of how and why a phenomenon occurs, usually in the form of a statement about the causal relationship between 2 or more properties’ Schacter et al. (2020, p. 48)
Theories serve to explain various phenomena and can guide further research.
What is a rationale in the context of developing theories?
A reason as to why we believe a theory to be the case
Rationales become more important as you progress through the course and expand your RDA knowledge.
What is the first step in developing theories after forming a question?
To start developing theories
This process involves hypothesizing causal relationships based on the question posed.
Fill in the blank: A theory is a _______ account of how and why a phenomenon occurs.
hypothetical
True or False: Rationales are not important in the development of theories.
False
Rationales become increasingly important as knowledge expands.
What factors inform the approaches we take in psychology?
The types of questions we ask
Different questions lead to different psychological approaches.
What does the cognitive perspective in psychology explore?
The processes behind decision making and how to change these
This perspective focuses on mental processes.
What is the focus of the personality approach in psychology?
Traits approach, considered more static and therefore less subject to change
This approach looks at stable characteristics of individuals.
What does the social approach in psychology examine?
How others influence our decisions
It includes the study of peer influence.
True or False: The same topics in psychology can only be approached in one way.
False
The same topics can be approached in very different ways.
What philosophical group is associated with Logical Positivism?
Vienna Circle
What does Logical Positivism propose regarding ideas?
Outlining if an idea was meaningful or if it was nonsense
What are the two main types of statements according to Logical Positivism?
- Definitions
- Verifiable empirical statements
Give an example of a definition that is meaningfully true.
A triangle has three sides
What is an example of a verifiable empirical statement?
Eating cheese before bed gives you nightmares
According to Logical Positivism, when are statements considered meaningful?
If they could be verifiable
What philosophical group is associated with Logical Positivism?
Vienna Circle
What does Logical Positivism propose regarding ideas?
Outlining if an idea was meaningful or if it was nonsense
What are the two main types of statements according to Logical Positivism?
- Definitions
- Verifiable empirical statements
Give an example of a definition that is meaningfully true.
A triangle has three sides
What is an example of a verifiable empirical statement?
Eating cheese before bed gives you nightmares
According to Logical Positivism, when are statements considered meaningful?
If they could be verifiable
What is systematic empiricism?
‘The practice of relying on observation.’
Stanovich, 2013, p. 9
What does the term ‘empirical’ suggest?
Facts are derived by observation and experience as opposed to theory.
What is the Greek origin of the word ‘empirical’?
It comes from the Greek ‘emperos’.
How can science be viewed when combined with logical positivism?
As a series of logical states that could be observed and verified.
Fill in the blank: All swans are _______.
white
What is the main problem with logical positivism?
Scaling
Logical positivism struggles with generalizing individual observations to broader claims.
What is an example of verifiable information at an individual level?
Georgia the swan is white
This statement can be observed and verified directly.
What is the problem with generalization in logical positivism?
Cannot easily verify general claims
General claims, such as ‘all swans are white’, cannot be readily verified through observation.
What is induction?
Process of inferring rules based on a set of particular observations
Induction allows for generalizations from specific cases, despite the limitations of verification.
Who is associated with the concept of falsification?
Karl Popper
What did Karl Popper disagree with regarding the logical basis of induction?
He argued that observing many instances does not guarantee future instances.
According to Popper, what is the significance of observing a single black swan?
It can falsify the view that all swans are white.
What is the essence of falsification?
Proposing a theory and seeking to falsify it.
What does failure to falsify a theory indicate?
It is not proof, but support for the theory.
What does the term ‘falsifying a theory’ imply?
It means we need to amend the theory.
Can a theory be definitively proven according to Popper?
No, a theory cannot be definitively proven.
Fill in the blank: You can definitely _______ a theory.
falsify
How did Popper view the scientific community?
As a critical community
Popper emphasized that the scientific community should challenge and test theories.
What is the process that Popper suggests scientists follow with their theories?
Put forward theories and attempt to break them
This process is essential for scientific advancement.
According to Popper, what do areas that seek to verify not constitute?
Science
Popper argued that verification does not lead to genuine scientific progress.
What is the result of breaking and amending theories?
Advancement of knowledge and understanding
This practice helps refine scientific theories.
What term describes the increasing closeness of a theory to the truth?
Verisimilitude
Verisimilitude refers to the degree of truthlikeness in theories.
Fill in the blank: Theory 2 is closer to truth than _______.
Theory 1
This illustrates the process of scientific refinement.
Who explored science through ‘paradigms’?
Thomas Kuhn
Thomas Kuhn is known for his work on the philosophy of science.
What is the title of Thomas Kuhn’s seminal work?
‘Structure of Scientific Revolution’ (1962)
This book discusses the nature of scientific progress and paradigm shifts.
What does the term ‘paradigm’ derive from?
The Greek for ‘pattern’ or ‘template’
The concept of paradigms is central to Kuhn’s theory of scientific revolutions.
How does Kuhn describe the development of scientific practice?
Learned/developed by familiarity with successful application of theory
This emphasizes the role of established theories in shaping scientific methods.
What happens as smaller paradigms become broadly accepted?
They form a single broad paradigm
This indicates a consolidation of scientific understanding over time.
How does Kuhn characterize the structure of a paradigm?
Broad but rigid structure
This suggests that while paradigms can encompass a wide range of theories, they also impose constraints on scientific inquiry.
What occurs during the ‘normal science’ phase of a paradigm?
‘Normal science’ occurs by forcing all ideas into the accepted paradigm.
This refers to the phase where existing theories are tested and refined without questioning the foundational assumptions.
According to Kuhn, what is the role of critical discourse in science?
The abandonment of critical discourse is what makes a science.
Critical discourse involves questioning and challenging existing paradigms, which is essential for scientific progress.
What happens to results that do not fit the accepted paradigm?
They are rejected and considered the mistake of the researcher, not the paradigm.
This highlights the resistance within scientific communities to change established theories.
What occurs when criticisms of a paradigm continue to emerge?
The paradigm reaches crisis and no longer functions.
This crisis may lead to the questioning of the paradigm’s validity and the search for alternatives.
What state follows the crisis of a paradigm?
A pre-paradigmatic state until a new paradigm is accepted.
This state is characterized by uncertainty and exploration of new ideas.
How did Kuhn describe the transition to a new paradigm?
He likened it to a conversion experience.
This analogy emphasizes the profound change in perspective that accompanies the adoption of a new paradigm.
What is a paradigm shift in science?
A fundamental change in the basic concepts and practices of a scientific discipline.
Name one example of a paradigm shift in the scientific world.
Flat earth to round earth.
What system did the Ptolematic system shift to?
The Copernican System.
What replaced Newtonian Physics after 200 years?
Quantum mechanics.
Who moved away from Galen’s system of anatomy?
Vesalius.
What did Kuhn believe about the nature of scientific progress?
That science jumps forward rather than progresses gradually.
What is a paradigm shift in science?
A fundamental change in the basic concepts and practices of a scientific discipline.
Name one example of a paradigm shift in the scientific world.
Flat earth to round earth.
What system did the Ptolematic system shift to?
The Copernican System.
What replaced Newtonian Physics after 200 years?
Quantum mechanics.
Who moved away from Galen’s system of anatomy?
Vesalius.
What did Kuhn believe about the nature of scientific progress?
That science jumps forward rather than progresses gradually.
What is the main focus of the debate between Kuhn and Popper?
Their differing views on scientific theories and paradigms.
True or False: Kuhn and Popper completely agreed on their views of scientific progress.
False
What is one similarity between Kuhn and Popper’s ideas?
All observations are theory laden.
According to Popper, what is necessary for scientific progress?
Falsification
Fill in the blank: Popper believed the core theory could be _______ at any time.
challenged
Fill in the blank: Kuhn believed the central paradigm was _______ and should be rarely challenged.
sacred
What does Popper’s philosophy emphasize in relation to scientific theories?
The ability to challenge and falsify theories.
What does Kuhn argue about the central paradigm in scientific research?
It should be rarely challenged.
Who proposed the idea of science as research programmes?
Imre Lakatos
Lakatos is known for his contributions to the philosophy of science.
What does the term ‘Hard Core’ refer to in Lakatos’s theory?
Set of assumptions which cannot be abandoned/changed
The Hard Core forms the foundation of a research programme.
In Lakatos’s framework, what role do auxiliary hypotheses play?
Items that did not support Hard Core
Auxiliary hypotheses can be adjusted without affecting the Hard Core.
Fill in the blank: Imre Lakatos proposed the idea of science as _______.
research programmes
True or False: The Hard Core of a research programme can be easily changed.
False
The Hard Core is meant to remain constant.
What is a Hard Core in scientific paradigms?
A foundational set of beliefs or theories that cannot be abandoned or altered without rejecting the entire core.
Similar to a Kuhnian Paradigm.
What is an Auxiliary Hypothesis?
Evidence that threatens the core but does not outright reject it as Popper argued.
Exploring these ‘failures’ can lead to significant insights about the central core.
True or False: A Hard Core can be altered without rejecting the entire scientific framework.
False
Altering the Hard Core would mean rejecting the whole core.
Fill in the blank: The __________ is similar to a Kuhnian Paradigm and cannot be abandoned.
Hard Core
What can be learned through exploring Auxiliary Hypotheses?
We can learn a lot about the central core.
This exploration provides insights into the foundational beliefs.
What constitutes science?
There is no real unified idea as to what constitutes science.
What is a common characteristic of scientific ideas?
Only ideas that can be feasibly tested are considered science.
What is essential for scientific validity?
We need to be able to falsify.
What role does observation play in science?
Observation is key.
What must accompany ideas or data in science?
Ideas/data cannot be considered without theory.
How is science characterized as a process?
Science is a process, which doesn’t lead to the end fact.
What can challenge our understanding of science?
There are pinch points which challenge our understanding and change our approach.
What is a necessary condition for scientific information?
Science must be publicly available.
Fill in the blank: Ideas that can be feasibly tested are considered _______.
[science]
True or False: Scientific ideas must be capable of being falsified.
True
What is a key characteristic of science?
Empiricism/Observation is key
Empiricism emphasizes the importance of observation and experience in the formation of knowledge.
What cannot be considered without theory in science?
Ideas/data
Theories provide a framework for interpreting data and understanding observations.
How is science described in terms of its process?
Science is a process, which doesn’t lead to the end fact
This indicates that science is ongoing and subject to revision.
What are pinch points in science?
They challenge our understanding and change our approach
Pinch points refer to critical moments or findings that prompt reevaluation of existing theories.
What must science be in order to be valid?
Publicly available
Transparency allows for peer review and validation of scientific findings.
What type of ideas are considered science?
Only ideas that can be feasibly tested
Testability is a fundamental criterion for scientific inquiry.
What is necessary for scientific ideas in terms of falsifiability?
We need to be able to falsify
Falsifiability allows for the possibility of disproving a hypothesis, which is essential for scientific credibility.
True or False: There is a unified idea of what constitutes science.
False
The concept of science is diverse and varies across different fields and disciplines.
Fill in the blank: Science must be _______ available.
publicly
Public availability is crucial for scientific progress and collaboration.
Does the statement ‘science leads to end facts’ accurately describe the nature of science?
No
Science is iterative and always open to new evidence and interpretations.
What is the historical significance of empiricism in psychology?
Empiricism has a history in psychology, with notable figures including Ebbinghaus, Stroop, Skinner, Milgram, Zimbardo, and Bandura.
Does empiricism alone make a topic scientific?
No, empiricism itself does not make a topic scientific.
What would happen if you observed everything you did in a day and wrote it down?
You would be no nearer to understanding the world.
What is crucial for gaining understanding through observations?
Observations must be ‘systematic’.
What approach helps us learn more about our world in psychology?
A systematic approach.
What will you learn throughout your RDA course?
How to base your work on systematic empiricism.
Fill in the blank: Observations must be _______ to gain understanding.
systematic.
What is the assumption about scientists in theory?
Scientists are unbiased in their observations, measurements, and experiments.
How does observation relate to theory?
Observation justifies (or not) a theory the scientist already holds.
What determines what kinds of data to collect?
Theories determine what kinds of data to collect.
True or False: Theory in the absence of data is considered science.
False
True or False: Data alone make a science.
False
Why is it important to consider biases when forming a theory?
Because biases can influence the formation and justification of the theory.
What is debated amongst scientists and philosophers of science regarding psychology?
The use of theory and whether we can be truly unbiased in science
This debate highlights the challenges of objectivity in scientific inquiry.
How do theories in psychology reflect the individual scientist?
Theories include and reflect the biases, prejudices, values, and assumptions of the individual scientist
This suggests that personal perspectives can influence scientific outcomes.
What role do unconscious biases such as androcentrism and ethnocentrism play in psychological theories?
They influence the development and interpretation of psychological theories
Androcentrism refers to male-centered perspectives, while ethnocentrism involves evaluating other cultures based on one’s own.
Who argued that the ‘critical tradition’ was difficult to follow?
Popper
Karl Popper is known for his work in the philosophy of science, particularly regarding falsifiability.
What is a challenge mentioned regarding criticism in scientific theory?
It is hard to be consistently criticised
This reflects the human tendency to defend one’s own ideas and theories.
What natural inclination do people have regarding their theories?
People naturally wish to defend their theories
This tendency can lead to confirmation bias, where individuals favor information that confirms their existing beliefs.
What term does Kuhn use to describe the current state of psychology?
Pre-paradigmatic
Kuhn suggests that psychology has not yet established a unified framework like other sciences.
What was a central paradigm in psychology during the early 1900s?
The behaviourist movement
The behaviourist movement focused on observable behaviors and was prominent before declining in influence.
What theory is mentioned as a potential unifying theory for psychology?
Darwin’s theory of evolution
Although Darwin’s theory could unify various psychological concepts, it is not widely accepted as the central view in psychology.
What phenomenon has shaped the field of psychology according to the text?
Smaller crises
These crises reflect the evolving nature of psychological theories and paradigms over time.
What term does Kuhn use to describe the current state of psychology?
Pre-paradigmatic
Kuhn suggests that psychology has not yet established a unified framework like other sciences.
What was a central paradigm in psychology during the early 1900s?
The behaviourist movement
The behaviourist movement focused on observable behaviors and was prominent before declining in influence.
What theory is mentioned as a potential unifying theory for psychology?
Darwin’s theory of evolution
Although Darwin’s theory could unify various psychological concepts, it is not widely accepted as the central view in psychology.
What phenomenon has shaped the field of psychology according to the text?
Smaller crises
These crises reflect the evolving nature of psychological theories and paradigms over time.
What is parapsychology?
The scientific study of experiences which, if they are as they seem to be, are in principle outside the realm of human capabilities as presently conceived by conventional scientists
(Irwin & Watts, 2007)
What are some areas studied in parapsychology?
- Study of ghosts
- Paranormal activity
- Extrasensory perception
What is a characteristic of parapsychology research methods?
They are often extremely robust.
What is a potential challenge faced by researchers in parapsychology?
Fear of rebuke.
True or False: Einstein’s theory of relativity predicted gravitational waves that could be detected immediately after its proposal.
False.
Fill in the blank: Parapsychology includes the study of _______.
[ghosts, paranormal activity, extrasensory perception]
What is a key criticism of psychoanalysis according to Popper?
Psychoanalysis is difficult to test
Popper argues that theories should be falsifiable to be considered scientific.
What did Popper highlight about Adler’s theory?
It is not falsifiable
Popper’s critique centered on the inability to prove Adler’s theory wrong.
What was Adler’s response to the case that did not fit his theory?
He analyzed it in terms of his theory of inferiority feelings
Adler maintained that his extensive experience allowed him to validate his theory.
How did Popper challenge Adler’s claim of experience?
By questioning the validity of adding a new case to his experience
Popper remarked that Adler’s assertion of experience was not a solid foundation for scientific theory.
What question does the text raise about psychoanalysis?
Can it be considered a science?
This question stems from the issues of testability and falsifiability in psychoanalysis.
What is an important feature in science?
Replication
Replication allows for the verification of results in scientific research.
What happens to psychological phenomena that do not replicate?
We tend to question the central theory
Non-replicable phenomena lead to skepticism about the underlying theories.
What concept fits with questioning a central theory when replication fails?
Falsification
Falsification is the principle that a theory must be testable and can be proven false.
Do practical experiments in ‘hard’ sciences always replicate?
No
Even in hard sciences, replication is not guaranteed.
What is often blamed when replication fails in hard sciences?
The researcher
This reflects a tendency to protect the core idea despite replication issues.
What concept by Kuhn is mentioned in relation to replication?
Paradigms
Kuhn’s paradigms refer to the frameworks within which scientists operate, affecting how they interpret data.
Fill in the blank: When psychological phenomena do not replicate, we tend to _______.
question the central theory
True or False: In psychology, replication failures lead to blaming the theory rather than the researcher.
False
In psychology, replication failures often lead to questioning the theory rather than blaming the researcher.
What are the two broad sets of guidelines with respect to ethical behaviour in psychology?
BPS Code of ethics and conduct, BPS Code of human research ethics
The BPS Code of ethics and conduct determines professional behaviour as a psychologist, while the BPS Code of human research ethics addresses ethical decision making when conducting research with human participants.
What does the BPS Code of ethics and conduct determine?
Professional behaviour as a psychologist
This code provides a framework for psychologists to ensure their conduct meets ethical standards.
What does the BPS Code of human research ethics address?
Ethical decision making when planning and conducting research with human participants
This code guides researchers in ensuring the rights and welfare of participants are protected.
What are Practice Guidelines in the context of psychology?
Outline general principles of behaviour for those practicing as a psychologist
These guidelines help psychologists maintain a standard of practice that aligns with ethical norms.
What is a key ethical principle related to integrity?
Honesty & Accuracy
This includes being honest and accurate in representing professional affiliations and qualifications, conveying professional conclusions and opinions, claiming ownership or credit for research.
List three aspects of honesty and accuracy in professional conduct.
- Representing professional affiliations and qualifications
- Conveying professional conclusions and opinions
- Claiming ownership or credit for research
What should professionals avoid to maintain ethical standards?
Avoiding Exploitation & Conflicts of Interest
Professionals should remain aware that dual relationships may result in problems.
True or False: Professionals should form relationships that can impair their objectivity.
False
Professionals should avoid forming relationships that can impair professional objectivity.
What is one way professionals can maintain personal boundaries?
Refrain from sexual or romantic relationships with persons to whom you are providing a professional service
This is crucial for maintaining ethical standards in professional settings.
Fill in the blank: Professionals should refrain from engaging in _______.
harassment
What should professionals recognize regarding harassment?
Recognise all forms of harassment, single event or repeated events
Professionals must be aware of both single occurrences and patterns of harassment.
How should professionals address ethical misconduct?
Addressing Ethical Misconduct
Professionals should engage colleagues to report misconduct and bring allegations without breaches of confidentiality.
What is expected from professionals when they encounter misconduct?
Cooperate and engage colleagues regarding misconduct
This includes bringing allegations of misconduct without breaching confidentiality.
What should participants be able to do regarding their involvement in an experiment?
Withdraw themselves or their data before, during, or after the experiment
This ensures autonomy and respect for participants’ rights.
What is a key requirement for participant data in research?
Anonymized
Anonymization helps protect participant identities.
What type of consent should participants provide?
Informed consent
Participants must have sufficient information to make a knowledgeable decision.
How should participant data be treated?
Confidentially
This ensures that personal information is not disclosed without permission.
True or False: Participants can be deceived during an investigation.
False
Participants should not be deceived unless essential for the experiment.
What must not be experienced by participants beyond everyday living?
Psychological or physical discomfort
This is to protect the well-being of participants.
List the ethical principles mentioned in relation to participant treatment.
- Withdraw
- Consent - informed
- Anonymity
- Confidentiality
- Deception
- Protection from harm
These principles guide ethical decision-making in research.
What is the primary ethical standard for psychologists regarding individuals and communities?
Respect for the autonomy, privacy, and dignity of individuals and communities
This standard emphasizes the duty of psychologists to prioritize the rights and dignity of their participants.
What does respect for participants in research include?
A clear duty to participants, including respect for their knowledge, insight, experience, and expertise
Psychologists are expected to acknowledge the contributions of participants in research.
List some individual differences that psychologists must respect according to ethical standards.
- Age
- Disability
- Gender reassignment
- Marriage and civil partnership
- Pregnancy and maternity
- Race
- Religion and belief
- Sex
- Sexual orientation
- Education
- Language
- Socio-economic status
These differences are essential for ensuring ethical treatment in psychological practice.
True or False: Psychologists are required to respect cultural differences in their participants.
True
Respecting cultural differences is a key component of ethical standards in psychology.
Fill in the blank: Psychologists have a clear duty to _______ in the research context.
participants
This duty includes ensuring their rights and dignity are upheld.
What is scientific integrity?
Commitment to ensuring high-quality and accountable standards in research
Scientific integrity emphasizes the importance of ethical standards in the research process.
What are ethics standards in psychology focused on?
Ensuring accountability and high quality in research
This includes adherence to scientific design and consideration of potential risks.
What does quality in research primarily relate to?
The scientific design of the research
Quality also involves considering potential risks of harm and protocols for addressing difficulties.
Why is transparency important in research aims?
To ensure clarity in what the research intends to achieve
Transparency helps stakeholders understand the objectives and potential impacts of the research.
Fill in the blank: Ethics standards ensure that research is _______.
[accountable and of sufficiently high quality]
True or False: Scientific integrity is unrelated to the risks of harm in research.
False
Scientific integrity includes considerations for potential risks of harm.
What is the aim of generating psychological knowledge?
To support beneficial outcomes
Beneficial outcomes are defined as those that respect the dignity and integrity of persons and contribute to the common good.
How should ethical standards be defined in the context of psychology?
Ethics standards should aim to support beneficial outcomes that reflect respect for dignity and integrity
This includes respect for individuals and groups.
Fill in the blank: The aim of generating psychological knowledge should be to support _______.
[beneficial outcomes]
True or False: Ethical standards in psychology are only concerned with individual dignity.
False
Ethical standards also encompass collective dignity and the common good.
What are beneficial outcomes in the context of ethical decision-making?
Outcomes that support and reflect respect for dignity and integrity
This includes contributions to the common good.
What should psychology researchers seek to maximise in their work?
The benefits of their work at all stages, from inception through to dissemination.
What must be avoided in research involving human participants?
Harm to research participants.
What should be developed and complied with when unavoidable risks arise in research?
Robust risk assessment and management protocols.
What is the normal expectation for the risk of harm in psychological research?
The risk of harm should be no greater than that encountered in ordinary life.
Fill in the blank: Researchers should not expose participants to risks greater than or additional to those to which they are exposed in their _______.
normal lifestyles.
Who is the key figure associated with the concept of dualism in psychology?
René Descartes
Descartes was a French philosopher known for his influential thoughts on the relationship between mind and body.
What question did Descartes seek to answer regarding the mind and body?
Are the body and mind separate?
This question relates to the philosophical inquiry about the existence of a soul distinct from the body.
What are the two components that Descartes separated in his theory of dualism?
- Physical matter (res extensa)
- Non-material, non-extended mind (res cogitans)
These terms describe the physical and mental aspects of existence according to Cartesian dualism.
What famous phrase did Descartes coin that encapsulates his philosophical stance?
Cogito ergo sum
This translates to ‘I think, therefore I am,’ emphasizing the connection between thought and existence.
What does Descartes suggest about consciousness?
No consciousness without a body that carries it
This implies that the mind cannot exist independently of the physical body.
Fill in the blank: Descartes’ theory of dualism is often referred to as _______.
Cartesian dualism
This term reflects Descartes’ views on the separation of mind and body.
True or False: Descartes believed that knowledge was the only thing that exists.
True
Descartes is known for his assertion that knowledge is fundamental to existence.
Who is the key figure associated with the concept of dualism in psychology?
René Descartes
Descartes was a French philosopher known for his influential thoughts on the relationship between mind and body.
What question did Descartes seek to answer regarding the mind and body?
Are the body and mind separate?
This question relates to the philosophical inquiry about the existence of a soul distinct from the body.
What are the two components that Descartes separated in his theory of dualism?
- Physical matter (res extensa)
- Non-material, non-extended mind (res cogitans)
These terms describe the physical and mental aspects of existence according to Cartesian dualism.
What famous phrase did Descartes coin that encapsulates his philosophical stance?
Cogito ergo sum
This translates to ‘I think, therefore I am,’ emphasizing the connection between thought and existence.
What does Descartes suggest about consciousness?
No consciousness without a body that carries it
This implies that the mind cannot exist independently of the physical body.
Fill in the blank: Descartes’ theory of dualism is often referred to as _______.
Cartesian dualism
This term reflects Descartes’ views on the separation of mind and body.
True or False: Descartes believed that knowledge was the only thing that exists.
True
Descartes is known for his assertion that knowledge is fundamental to existence.
Who wrote ‘The Passions of the Soul’?
René Descartes
Published in 1646, this work discusses the nature of emotions.
What are the ‘animal spirits’ according to Descartes?
Animal spirits are substances that connect muscles and the brain to trigger ‘passions’
Descartes believed these spirits played a role in emotional responses.
List some of the passions described by Descartes.
- Wonder
- Love
- Hatred
- Desire
- Joy
- Sadness
These emotions are linked to the concept of animal spirits.
What function does Descartes attribute to the central nervous system?
It serves as a highway for animal spirits
This implies that the central nervous system plays a crucial role in emotion and action.
How do the mind and body interact according to Descartes?
Via the pineal gland in the brain
Descartes viewed the pineal gland as the point of interaction between the mind and body.
What was Descartes’ view of the brain?
He believed the brain to be a working machine
This mechanical view foreshadowed later developments in psychology and neuroscience.
True or False: Descartes’ ideas about emotions were influenced by the theory of evolution.
False
Descartes’ theories were developed before the concept of evolution was widely accepted.
What is the main idea of the nature vs. nurture debate?
The debate contrasts nativists, who believe in innate knowledge, with empiricists, who argue that knowledge comes from experience.
This debate continues to influence various areas of psychology, including language acquisition.
Who is an example of a nativist philosopher?
Leibniz
Leibniz argued that everyone is born with innate knowledge and that experience merely liberates ideas already present in the mind.
What do nativists believe about abstract concepts?
They believe it is impossible to derive abstract concepts from experience.
Nativists hold that certain ideas are inherent and not learned from sensory experiences.
What is the view of empiricists regarding knowledge?
Empiricists believe that all knowledge comes from experience impacting the mind.
Key figures include Locke, Berkeley, and Hume.
Which philosophers are considered empiricists?
- Locke
- Berkeley
- Hume
These philosophers emphasized that sensory experience is the only true knowledge of the world.
What argument do empiricists present against innate ideas?
If ideas were innate, everyone should have them regardless of age or intelligence.
This challenges the nativist position by suggesting that innate ideas cannot be universally experienced.
Fill in the blank: Nativists argue that experience serves only to _______.
[liberate ideas that were in the mind already]
True or False: The debate between nativism and empiricism is a historical issue that has been resolved.
False
The debate continues to exist in modern psychology.
What is the title of Darwin’s book published in 1859?
‘The Origin of Species’
What is the basis of Darwin’s theory of evolution?
Natural selection
What are the three principles of Darwin’s evolutionary theory?
- The Principle of Variation
- The Principle of Inheritance
- The Principle of Adaptation
What does the Principle of Variation state?
All species show variation in their phenotype
What does the Principle of Inheritance indicate?
A part of this variation is heritable
What occurs according to the Principle of Adaptation?
Competition among individuals for scarce resources occurs
How does adaptation relate to survival?
Survival of the fittest
What kind of behavior do animals and human beings develop?
Adaptive behavior that is helpful for survival
How is the mind shaped according to Darwin’s theory?
The mind is shaped by the individual’s behavior in their environment
Fill in the blank: Phenotype is a mix of _______ and environment.
genetics
True or False: The Principle of Adaptation suggests that some variants allow their bearers to compete effectively.
True
What is psychophysics?
Study of the relationship between incoming physical (sensory) stimuli and people’s responses to or experiences of them.
Focuses on how individuals respond to stimuli rather than the stimuli themselves.
Who wrote ‘Elements of Psychophysics’?
Fechner
Fechner lived from 1801 to 1887 and is considered a key figure in the beginnings of psychology.
What year was ‘Elements of Psychophysics’ published?
1860
What does Fechner’s Law state?
Sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity.
This law suggests that as stimulus intensity increases, more of it is needed to detect a change.
In Fechner’s Law, what happens to sensation as stimulus intensity increases?
More is needed to detect a change.
What was Fechner’s goal in his research?
To discover a mathematical relationship between items.
What is a significant application of psychophysics?
Used in consumer behaviors.
True or False: Psychophysics focuses on how stimuli change rather than how people respond to them.
False
Fill in the blank: Psychophysics is the study of the relationship between _______ and people’s responses.
[incoming physical (sensory) stimuli]
Who was Ebbinghaus?
A pioneer in the study of memory and learning
Ebbinghaus conducted significant research on memory using himself as the subject.
What years did Ebbinghaus conduct his initial memory studies?
1879-1880
He later replicated the procedure from 1883-1884.
What did Ebbinghaus produce for his studies?
Nonsense syllables
This helped him analyze memory without the influence of existing knowledge.
What concept did Ebbinghaus introduce related to learning?
‘Learning to criterion’
This concept refers to the idea of learning until a certain standard or criterion is met.
What are the two key curves Ebbinghaus is known for?
Learning curve and forgetting curve
These curves illustrate how information is acquired and lost over time.
What does the primacy effect refer to?
The tendency to remember the first items on a list
This effect is part of the broader study of memory recall.
What does the recency effect refer to?
The tendency to remember the last items on a list
Together with the primacy effect, it explains how items are recalled differently based on their position.
Fill in the blank: Ebbinghaus is known for studying _______.
memory and learning
His research laid the groundwork for modern psychology.
True or False: Ebbinghaus only studied memory for a few months.
False
He gathered data for more than a year.
Who was among the first to conduct studies of memory and learning?
Ebbinghaus
What was the time period during which Ebbinghaus gathered data for his studies?
1879-1880
What did Ebbinghaus replicate between 1883 and 1884?
The entire procedure of his memory studies
What type of syllables did Ebbinghaus produce for his studies?
Nonsense syllables
What concept did Ebbinghaus introduce that refers to achieving a specific level of learning?
‘Learning to criterion’
What are the two types of curves introduced by Ebbinghaus?
Learning curve and forgetting curve
What does the term ‘primacy effect’ refer to?
The tendency to remember the first items on a list
What does the term ‘recency effect’ refer to?
The tendency to remember the last items on a list
Fill in the blank: Ebbinghaus’s studies showed that the _______ and _______ effects influence memory.
Primacy and recency
True or False: Ebbinghaus’s studies indicated that the middle items on a list are typically remembered better than the first and last items.
False
Who opened the first laboratory of Experimental Psychology?
Wundt in 1879 at Leipzig University
What journal did Wundt found that was the world’s first devoted to Experimental Psychology?
‘Philosophische Studien’ (‘Philosophical Studies’)
What was the aim of Experimental Psychology according to Wundt?
To systematically vary the stimuli and conditions that elicited different mental states
What method did Wundt use to analyze conscious experience?
Introspection
Who were the subjects used in Wundt’s introspection method?
Only trained, advanced Psychology students
True or False: Wundt’s methods are considered objective by today’s standards.
False
Fill in the blank: Wundt is alleged to be the first to call himself a _______.
[psychologist]
What is a limitation of introspection as a method in psychology?
Different observers can provide different responses to the same stimuli
In what year did Wundt establish his laboratory?
1879
What is one criticism of Wundt’s introspection method?
Methods perhaps too subjective by today’s standards
Who was Titchener?
A student of Wundt and a key figure in structuralism
Titchener studied under Wundt from 1890 to 1892.
What did Titchener believe about psychological phenomena?
They are composed of mental elements.
What was Titchener’s view on the role of the experimental psychologist?
‘The experimental psychologist should unravel the elemental processes from the tangle of experience’ (Titchener, 1898).
List the three important tasks of structuralism.
- Discover how many processes there were
- Identify the elements of these processes
- Explain how they work together.
How did Titchener relate sensations to elements?
He likened sensations to structures, similar to elements in chemistry.
What was one of Titchener’s goals regarding the mind?
To analyze the laws governing the connections between the elements of the mind.
What connection did Titchener aim to evaluate?
The connections between the mind and the nervous system.
Who was Titchener’s first PhD student?
Margaret Floy Washburn.
What is significant about Margaret Floy Washburn?
She was the first woman to receive a PhD in psychology (1894).
What are the three mental components of conscious experience according to Titchener?
- Sensations (discernments)
- Images (thoughts)
- Affections (emotions)
Titchener’s theory emphasizes these components as fundamental to understanding consciousness.
What aspects can vary for each sensation?
- Quality
- Intensity
- Duration
- Clearness
These aspects define how sensations are experienced and perceived.
Define ‘Quality’ in the context of sensations.
Distinguishing elements from one another
Quality helps to identify different sensations.
Define ‘Intensity’ in relation to sensations.
How strong/bright/loud a stimulus is
Intensity measures the strength of a sensation.
What does ‘Duration’ refer to in the study of sensations?
How long a sensation lasts
Duration indicates the temporal aspect of a sensation.
What is meant by ‘Clearness’ in the context of consciousness?
Attention in consciousness
Clearness is related to how focused a sensation is in one’s awareness.
What does functionalism focus on in psychology?
Dynamic purposes of psychological experience rather than its structure
Functionalism emphasizes the functions and processes of mental states.
Who heavily influenced functionalism?
Darwin
Darwin’s theories on evolution and adaptation influenced the understanding of psychological phenomena.
How are psychological phenomena viewed in functionalism?
They are not isolated from the environment; they are influenced and interrelated by changing behaviour in a complex environment
This perspective emphasizes the context in which psychological processes occur.
What is the title of the highly influential book written by William James?
The Principles of Psychology
Published in 1890, this work laid foundational concepts for psychology.
How did William James describe psychology?
As the science of mental life
This definition encompasses both conscious and unconscious processes.
Fill in the blank: Functionalism is largely concerned with the _______ of psychological experience.
dynamic purposes
This highlights the functional aspect of mental processes.
True or False: Functionalism views psychological phenomena as isolated from their environment.
False
Functionalism emphasizes the connection between psychological phenomena and their environmental context.
Who proposed the theory of emotion that suggests behavior produces changes in our conscious experience?
William James
What are the three steps to experience emotions according to James?
- Perception of a stimulus/situation
- Bodily changes result from the perception of a situation
- Recognition of the bodily changes produce subjective feelings/emotions
True or False: James believed that knowledge serves a purely theoretical purpose.
False
Fill in the blank: James believed that knowledge serves a _______ purpose.
pragmatic
What does pragmatic knowledge develop according to James?
A cohesive understanding of life
Who described the concept of classical conditioning?
Pavlov
Pavlov’s work in 1903 laid the foundation for classical conditioning.
What is the definition of classical conditioning?
A neutral stimulus associated with an unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that causes a conditioned response
This process involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response.
Who described the concept of operant conditioning?
Thorndike
Thorndike’s theories emerged in 1898 and 1911.
What is the Law of Effect?
Learning that our behaviours may be associated with consequences
This principle states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are likely to be repeated.
What happens when positive consequences are associated with a behavior?
The behavior is more likely to occur in the future
Positive reinforcement strengthens the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
What happens when negative consequences are associated with a behavior?
The behavior is avoided in the future
Negative reinforcement or punishment leads to a decrease in the occurrence of a behavior.
Fill in the blank: A neutral stimulus associated with an unconditioned stimulus becomes a _______.
conditioned stimulus
This transformation is key to classical conditioning.
True or False: Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both learning processes.
True
Both concepts explain how behaviors are learned and modified.
What are the three main features of the behaviourist manifesto?
- Psychology must be objective and exclude subjective data and interpretations.
- To predict and control overt behaviour rather than describe and explain conscious mental states.
- Remove distinction between humans and non-human animals.
According to behaviourism, what should psychology focus on?
Psychology should focus on predicting and controlling overt behaviour.
True or False: Behaviourism maintains that there is a significant distinction between humans and non-human animals.
False
Fill in the blank: Behaviourism argues that humans are a more complex form of _______.
behaviour seen in other species.
What does the behaviourist manifesto suggest about subjective data?
It must be excluded from psychology.
What concept did Watson famously conduct related to child development?
‘Little Albert’ concept
This experiment demonstrated classical conditioning in children.
According to Watson, how is behavior defined?
Behavior is a ‘reflex’ to our environment
This suggests that behavior is influenced by external stimuli.
What does conditioning allow us to do, according to the text?
Conditioning could be generalised
This means that learned behaviors can apply to similar situations.
What does the text suggest about children in relation to their experiences?
Children are a product of their experiences
This implies that environmental factors play a significant role in development.
What did Watson argue regarding shaping children’s futures?
Could shape any child to become; doctor, lawyer, artist etc
This reflects the belief in the power of conditioning to influence career paths.
Who is the founder of Psychoanalytic Theory?
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Freud’s work laid the foundation for the field of psychology as we know it today.
What is the main focus of Psychoanalytic Theory?
Importance of unconscious mental processes
This theory emphasizes how unconscious thoughts shape feelings, thoughts, and behaviors.
What does psychoanalysis aim to achieve?
Bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness
This process helps individuals better understand psychological disorders.
Psychoanalysis is primarily a _______ approach.
[therapeutic]
It is utilized to treat psychological issues by analyzing unconscious thoughts.
What type of patients did Freud primarily observe?
Patients suffering with hysteria
One notable patient was ‘Anna’, who contributed to Freud’s theories.
What motivates much of our behavior according to psychodynamic theory?
Inner and unconscious forces, memories, and conflicts
These elements are often beyond a person’s awareness or control.
Define ‘Preconscious’ in psychodynamic theory.
Can be brought into conscious thought
This contrasts with the unconscious, which cannot be accessed directly.
Define ‘Unconscious’ in psychodynamic theory.
Cannot be brought into conscious thought
It contains thoughts and feelings that are not accessible to awareness.
What techniques can help bring thoughts and feelings into consciousness?
Special techniques such as:
* Free association
* Dream interpretation
* Transference
These methods are used in psychodynamic therapy.
What is the impact of early experience according to psychodynamic theory?
Highly influential on later personality
Early experiences shape the development of personality traits.
Is the psychodynamic approach synonymous with psychoanalytic theory?
No, they are not synonymous
They represent different aspects of psychological understanding.
What does the ‘ID’ represent in psychodynamic theory?
Unconscious and impulsive, pleasure-seeking part of the brain
The ID operates on the pleasure principle.
What is the role of the ‘Ego’ in psychodynamic theory?
Conscious and mediates between the ID and superego
The Ego functions according to the reality principle.
What does the ‘Super-Ego’ represent?
The morally correct part of the mind
It deals with consciousness and upholding values.
What motivates much of our behavior according to psychodynamic theory?
Inner and unconscious forces, memories, and conflicts
These elements are often beyond a person’s awareness or control.
Define ‘Preconscious’ in psychodynamic theory.
Can be brought into conscious thought
This contrasts with the unconscious, which cannot be accessed directly.
Define ‘Unconscious’ in psychodynamic theory.
Cannot be brought into conscious thought
It contains thoughts and feelings that are not accessible to awareness.
What techniques can help bring thoughts and feelings into consciousness?
Special techniques such as:
* Free association
* Dream interpretation
* Transference
These methods are used in psychodynamic therapy.
What is the impact of early experience according to psychodynamic theory?
Highly influential on later personality
Early experiences shape the development of personality traits.
Is the psychodynamic approach synonymous with psychoanalytic theory?
No, they are not synonymous
They represent different aspects of psychological understanding.
What does the ‘ID’ represent in psychodynamic theory?
Unconscious and impulsive, pleasure-seeking part of the brain
The ID operates on the pleasure principle.
What is the role of the ‘Ego’ in psychodynamic theory?
Conscious and mediates between the ID and superego
The Ego functions according to the reality principle.
What does the ‘Super-Ego’ represent?
The morally correct part of the mind
It deals with consciousness and upholding values.
Who founded Gestalt Psychology?
Wertheimer, Kohler, and Koffka
Founded in Germany in 1912.
What is the fundamental assumption of Gestalt Psychology?
The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
What are some meanings of the term ‘Gestalt’?
- Form
- Shape
- Essence
- Manner
True or False: In Gestalt Psychology, the whole is considered to be the same as the sum of its parts.
False
Fill in the blank: The whole is ______ than the sum of its parts.
greater
Who was the first black man to receive a PhD in Psychology?
Francis Cecil Sumner
Francis Cecil Sumner earned his PhD in 1920.
In what year did Francis Cecil Sumner receive his PhD?
1920
Sumner’s accomplishment marked a significant milestone in psychology.
What was Francis Cecil Sumner’s primary area of interest?
Understanding and eliminating racial bias in the administration of justice
His work focused on social justice and psychology.
What types of publications did Francis Cecil Sumner contribute to?
Wrote abstracts for the Journal of Social Psychology and the Psychological Bulletin
His contributions helped advance the field of psychology.
Who is Gordon Allport?
An important figure in the development and measurement of personality traits.
What is Allport’s discrimination scale?
A measure developed by Allport to assess personality traits.
What is the title of Allport’s published work?
Personality: A Psychological Interpretation.
Define personality according to Allport.
Objective self, fundamental adjustment patterns that an individual forms over the course of their experience.
How does Allport view an individual’s personality?
As a unique combination of traits.
What is a trait?
A relatively stable disposition to behave in a particular and consistent way.
What does Allport believe traits are?
Pre-existing dispositions that reliably trigger behavior.
What is the Zone of Proximal Development?
The difference between a child’s learning progress with help or guidance and the child’s learning achievement without guidance of an adult.
Who is associated with the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development?
Vygotsky (1896-1934)
What role does speech play according to Vygotsky?
Speech is a mediator between an individual and the outside world.
How does language affect psychological development according to Vygotsky?
Language is used to change both the external and ‘internal’ psychological world.
What type of methods did Vygotsky use in his research?
Observational methods.
Fill in the blank: The Zone of Proximal Development indicates what a learner can do with _______.
[guidance]
Fill in the blank: The Zone of Proximal Development indicates what a learner can do unaided, what a learner cannot do, and _______.
[what a learner can do with guidance]
What is the Zone of Proximal Development?
The difference between a child’s learning progress with help or guidance and the child’s learning achievement without guidance of an adult.
Who is associated with the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development?
Vygotsky (1896-1934)
What role does speech play according to Vygotsky?
Speech is a mediator between an individual and the outside world.
How does language affect psychological development according to Vygotsky?
Language is used to change both the external and ‘internal’ psychological world.
What type of methods did Vygotsky use in his research?
Observational methods.
Fill in the blank: The Zone of Proximal Development indicates what a learner can do with _______.
[guidance]
Fill in the blank: The Zone of Proximal Development indicates what a learner can do unaided, what a learner cannot do, and _______.
[what a learner can do with guidance]
Who is associated with the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development?
Vygotsky (1896-1934)
Vygotsky’s work emphasizes the importance of social interactions in learning.
What is the Zone of Proximal Development?
The difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can do with guidance
This concept highlights the potential for learning with appropriate support.
What is one way to assist learners through the Zone of Proximal Development?
Present learner with a more knowledgeable other
This method encourages learning through observation and guidance.
What role do social interactions play in the Zone of Proximal Development?
They allow the learner to observe and practice skills with a tutor
Social interactions facilitate the learning process by providing real-time feedback.
What is scaffolding in the context of education?
Providing supportive activities as learners are guided through the Zone of Proximal Development
Scaffolding helps to build independence in learners gradually.
Fill in the blank: The Zone of Proximal Development emphasizes the importance of _______ in learning.
social interactions
These interactions are crucial for effective learning and skill acquisition.
True or False: Scaffolding is a one-time support method.
False
Scaffolding is an ongoing process that adapts to the learner’s needs.
What is the primary focus of Vygotsky’s theory?
The interaction between social context and cognitive development
Vygotsky believed that learning is inherently social.
Who is the psychologist associated with the theory of cognitive development?
Jean Piaget
What is the key idea of Piaget’s theory regarding children’s cognitive processes?
Children’s cognitive processes differ from that of adults
According to Piaget, what determines the stages of cognitive development?
The child’s developing brain, skills, and social environment
What is the term for the process of adopting new objects into old mental patterns?
Assimilation
What is the term for modifying one’s mental structures to fit new demands of the environment?
Accommodation
Fill in the blank: Human development is a process of _______ involving adaptation.
adaptation
True or False: Piaget believed that cognitive development occurs in a linear fashion.
False
What are the two main processes involved in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
- Assimilation
- Accommodation
What did Piaget (1896-1980) assert about children’s cognitive processes?
Children’s cognitive processes differ from that of adults
Piaget emphasized the distinct ways children think compared to adults.
What determines the stages of cognitive development according to Piaget?
The child’s developing brain, skills, and social environment
Piaget believed that cognitive development is not uniform but varies based on these factors.
What is assimilation in the context of cognitive development?
Adopt new objects into old mental patterns
Assimilation helps children integrate new experiences using existing cognitive frameworks.
What is accommodation in cognitive development?
Modify one’s mental structures to fit new demands of the environment
Accommodation allows for the adjustment of cognitive schemas when encountering new information.
Fill in the blank: According to Piaget, human development is a process of _______.
adaptation
Adaptation involves both assimilation and accommodation to understand the world.
What is humanistic psychology?
A theoretical and practical field in psychology concerned with an individual’s uniqueness
It emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization.
What is referred to as the ‘third force’ in psychology?
‘Third force’ refers to humanistic psychology, which follows behaviorism and psychodynamic approaches
It emerged in response to the limitations of the first two forces.
How is the psychodynamic approach viewed in relation to humanistic psychology?
Psychodynamic approach is seen as pessimistic
Humanistic psychology focuses on positive aspects of human nature.
How is the behaviorist approach viewed in relation to humanistic psychology?
Behaviorist approach is seen as too passive/robotic
Humanistic psychology emphasizes active human experience.
What concerns does humanistic psychology address?
Concerns over the loss of essence of human existence
It seeks to reclaim the uniqueness and value of individuals.
When was humanistic psychology formally recognized by the APA?
1971
This recognition marked a significant milestone in the field.
What type of methodologies does humanistic psychology favor?
Qualitative methodologies, specifically a phenomenological approach
This approach focuses on individuals’ subjective experiences.
Who is the author of ‘Man’s Search for Meaning’?
Viktor E. Frankl
Viktor Frankl is a prominent figure in psychology and is known for his contributions to humanistic psychology.
What type of theory did Viktor E. Frankl develop?
Humanistic theory of behaviour
This theory emphasizes the inherent value and agency of individuals.
According to Frankl, what is the primary motivation for life?
Finding meaning
Frankl posits that the search for meaning is fundamental to human existence.
True or False: Frankl believes that life has meaning only in certain circumstances.
False
Frankl asserts that life has meaning under all circumstances.
What freedom do individuals have according to Frankl’s theory?
Freedom to find meaning in what we do
This freedom is crucial for personal fulfillment and purpose.
In what context did Viktor Frankl develop his theory?
During time in the Nazi concentration camps
Frankl’s experiences in the camps significantly shaped his understanding of meaning.
What does Frankl mean by ‘Man’s Search for Meaning’?
It is the primary motivation in life, not a secondary rationalization of instinctual drives
Frankl emphasizes that each person’s search for meaning is unique and essential.
According to Frankl, what must a person’s meaning achieve?
It must be fulfilled by him alone
This personal fulfillment is crucial for one’s will to meaning.
Fill in the blank: Man, however, is able to live and even to die for the sake of his _______.
ideals and values
Frankl highlights the significance of personal ideals in one’s search for meaning.
What is self-actualization?
Achieving one’s full potential, including creative activities
Self-actualization is often considered the highest level of psychological development in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
What are esteem needs?
Prestige and feeling of accomplishment
Esteem needs are part of Maslow’s hierarchy and are important for self-esteem and personal worth.
What do belongingness and love needs encompass?
Intimate relationships and friends
These needs are crucial for emotional well-being and social connections.
What are safety needs?
Security and safety
Safety needs include physical safety as well as financial and health security.
What are physiological needs?
Food, water, warmth, rest
These are the basic requirements for human survival and must be met first.
Fill in the blank: Self-fulfillment needs are part of _______.
[psychological needs]
Self-fulfillment needs refer to the desire to realize one’s potential and seek personal growth.
What are basic needs according to Maslow’s hierarchy?
Physiological needs and safety needs
Basic needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs can be addressed.
What is Social Psychology?
The study of the causes and consequences of interpersonal behaviour.
Social psychology examines how individuals influence and are influenced by others.
Who were some early theorists in Social Psychology?
Le Bon, McDougall, Tarde
These theorists believed in the instinctual nature of social behaviour.
What significant finding did Triplett demonstrate in 1898?
People perform tasks differently when they are in groups than when they have to perform alone.
Triplett’s research involved swimmers and cyclists.
True or False: Early theories of Social Psychology emphasized learned behavior over instinctual behavior.
False
Early theories believed in the instinctual nature of social behaviour.
Fill in the blank: Social Psychology studies the _______ and consequences of interpersonal behaviour.
causes
This highlights the focus on understanding why individuals behave in social contexts.
What is a key concept studied in social psychology?
Conformity
Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms.
What experiment is associated with Asch in 1955?
The line judgement studies
These studies examined how individuals conform to group opinions even when they are incorrect.
What is the main focus of Milgram’s 1963 experiments?
Obedience
Milgram’s experiments demonstrated how far individuals would go in obeying authority figures, even to the point of causing harm to others.
Fill in the blank: The line judgement studies were conducted by _______.
Asch
Fill in the blank: The shock experiments were conducted by _______.
Milgram
True or False: The line judgement studies focused on obedience.
False
The line judgement studies focused on conformity, not obedience.
What psychological phenomenon does Milgram’s experiment illustrate?
The conflict between personal conscience and obedience to authority
Milgram’s findings revealed the extent to which individuals are willing to comply with authority, even against their moral beliefs.
What is cognitive psychology?
The scientific study of human mental processes and their role in thinking, emotions, and behaviour.
Cognitive psychology focuses on understanding how people perceive, remember, think, and learn.
What is the origin of the term ‘cognitive’?
From the Latin word ‘Cognoscere’, meaning ‘to know’.
This origin reflects the focus of cognitive psychology on knowledge and understanding.
What was the cognitive revolution?
A shift from primarily behavioural to cognitive psychology in the late 1950s to 1970s.
This period marked significant advancements in understanding mental processes.
What is a major criticism of behaviourism?
It ignores concepts relating to cognition.
Behaviourism focuses solely on observable behaviours, neglecting internal mental states.
What is Miller’s ‘magic number’?
7 +/- 2
Refers to the capacity limit of working memory as proposed by George A. Miller in 1956.
Who wrote ‘Plans and Structures of Behaviour’?
Miller et al.
This book was published in 1960 and is significant in the field of cognitive psychology.
What assumption does cognitive psychology make about mental life?
Mental life = information processing
This assumption suggests that human cognition can be understood as a series of information processing activities.
How does cognitive psychology view human beings?
As complex computing devices
This analogy emphasizes the intricate nature of human cognitive functions.
What can any psychological process be explained as, according to cognitive psychology?
Information processing based on a specific set of instructions or programs
This perspective allows for a structured approach to understanding psychological phenomena.
What is the ‘Test-operate-test-exit’ model?
A process that describes how individuals manage psychological operations
This model highlights the iterative nature of cognitive processes.
What is the heritability range of antisocial behavior according to Raine (2013)?
40-60%
This indicates that genetics play a significant role in antisocial behavior.
What are gene-environment interactions?
Behaviors can have a genetic basis but are only expressed depending on environmental factors
This suggests that both genetics and environment influence behavior.
Which gene moderates the effect of maltreatment on antisocial behavior?
Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA)
The MAOA gene is linked to the regulation of neurotransmitters that may affect behavior.
How does the MAOA gene affect individuals with low vs. high MAOA?
The relationship is stronger for individuals with low MAOA than high
This implies that those with low MAOA are more susceptible to the effects of maltreatment.
