SPOC week 3 AI generated

Question 1

Describe the classical signs of inflammation.

Answer 1

The classical signs of inflammation are redness, swelling, tenderness, and heat.

Question 2

What is systemic low-grade inflammation?

Answer 2

Systemic low-grade inflammation is inflammation present in cardio-metabolic diseases, characterized by low levels of inflammation affecting the entire body.

Question 3

How is low-grade inflammation linked to obesity?

Answer 3

Low-grade inflammation in obesity is triggered by stressed tissue cells, particularly fat cells, which secrete inflammatory factors like cytokines.

Question 4

Define cytokines and their role in inflammation.

Answer 4

Cytokines are signaling molecules produced by cells. In inflammation, they attract immune cells and promote further cytokine production, contributing to the inflammatory response.

Question 5

What are some nutrients that can combat inflammation?

Answer 5

Omega-3 fatty acids found in fatty fish, olive oil, and nuts, as well as fruits and vegetables, can help combat inflammation.

Question 6

What are some markers of low-grade inflammation?

Answer 6

Markers include cytokines like TNF-alpha and IL-6, C-reactive protein (CRP), and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), which are elevated in conditions like obesity and cardiovascular diseases.

Question 7

Describe the role of the endothelium in controlling vascular tone.

Answer 7

The endothelium controls vascular tone by balancing vasodilation (widening of blood vessels) and vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels) through factors like Nitric Oxide.

Question 8

Define endothelial dysfunction and its implications in cardiovascular health.

Answer 8

Endothelial dysfunction is the impairment of normal endothelial function, leading to reduced vasodilation, increased inflammation, and a pro-thrombotic state, contributing to atherosclerosis and atherothrombosis.

Question 9

How does Nitric Oxide contribute to vasodilation in blood vessels?

Answer 9

Nitric Oxide is released by endothelial cells in response to shear stress, causing relaxation of smooth muscle cells in blood vessel walls, leading to vasodilation.

Question 10

Describe the relationship between endothelial dysfunction and cardiometabolic diseases.

Answer 10

Endothelial dysfunction is associated with conditions like elevated LDL, low HDL, increased triglycerides, hypertension, inflammation, hyperglycemia, and hyperinsulinemia commonly seen in cardiometabolic diseases.

Question 11

What is the significance of low-grade inflammation in endothelial function?

Answer 11

Low-grade inflammation in the endothelium, particularly in stressed or activated endothelium, can lead to the secretion of inflammatory factors and activation of adhesion factors, contributing to atherosclerosis.

Question 12

How can green leafy vegetables like beetroot impact blood pressure through Nitric Oxide synthesis?

Answer 12

Green leafy vegetables are a good source of nitrate, which can be converted to Nitric Oxide in the body. Nitric Oxide helps relax blood vessels, potentially reducing blood pressure.

Question 13

Describe the FMD method in measuring vascular function.

Answer 13

The FMD method measures the degree of vasodilation of an artery in response to increased shear stress by occluding the artery with a pressure bandage, then releasing the occlusion to allow blood flow, leading to the release of relaxation factors like NO.

Question 14

Define arterial stiffness and its implications on health.

Answer 14

Arterial stiffness is when arteries lose elasticity due to factors like aging or atherosclerosis, leading to impaired blood pressure control and increased risk of hypertension, myocardial infarction, and stroke.

Question 15

How is pulse wave velocity (PWV) related to arterial stiffness?

Answer 15

Pulse wave velocity is the speed at which a pulse wave travels through the vascular system, with higher speeds indicating stiffer arteries and an increased risk for cardiovascular events.

Question 16

What are the main two lipids in the blood, and how are they transported?

Answer 16

The main two lipids are cholesterol and triglycerides, transported in the blood by lipoproteins which act as carriers due to the lipids’ inability to flow easily in the watery blood environment.

Question 17

Describe the classification of lipoproteins based on size and lipid composition.

Answer 17

Lipoproteins range from chylomicrons (largest, mainly containing triglycerides) to very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) with varying amounts of cholesterol and triglycerides.

Question 18

How does the liver contribute to cholesterol levels in the body?

Answer 18

The liver secretes bile containing cholesterol, with two-thirds of the body’s cholesterol delivered through bile and only one-third from the diet, facilitating the absorption of dietary fat and cholesterol.

Question 19

Describe the role of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) in the process of lipid metabolism.

Answer 19

LPL breaks down triglycerides carried by chylomicrons into free fatty acids that can be taken up by cells.

Question 20

What is the main function of LDL (low-density lipoprotein) in the body?

Answer 20

The main function of LDL is to transport cholesterol from the liver to other organs where it is needed.

Question 21

Define HDL (high-density lipoprotein) and its role in the body.

Answer 21

HDL is considered ‘good’ cholesterol and is associated with removing cholesterol from the arterial wall and transporting it back to the liver, a process known as reverse cholesterol transport.

Question 22

How are lipoproteins like LDL, IDL, and VLDL categorized in terms of cholesterol content and their impact on health?

Answer 22

These lipoproteins are often referred to as ‘bad’ cholesterol as they can deposit cholesterol in the artery wall, leading to atherosclerosis and increased risk of coronary heart disease.

Question 23

Describe the relationship between high triglyceride levels and the risk of coronary heart disease.

Answer 23

High blood levels of triglycerides are associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease, potentially due to the presence of triglyceride-rich VLDL and IDL particles in circulation.

Question 24

What is the significance of Lipoprotein (a) (Lp(a)) in cardiovascular health?

Answer 24

High concentrations of Lp(a) have been linked to an increased risk of coronary heart disease and stroke, with a probable causal effect. Lp(a) levels are genetically controlled and relatively stable throughout life.

Question 25

Describe the role of phytosterols in the body in relation to cholesterol absorption.

Answer 25

Phytosterols compete with dietary cholesterol in the gut, leading to less cholesterol absorption and lower blood levels of LDL-cholesterol.

Question 26

Define atherosclerosis and explain its impact on blood vessels.

Answer 26

Atherosclerosis is the buildup of plaque in the arteries, leading to narrowing and hardening of blood vessels, which can restrict blood flow and increase the risk of heart disease.

Question 27

How does ischemia and reperfusion injury affect blood vessels?

Answer 27

Ischemia and reperfusion injury can damage blood vessels, especially the endothelium, leading to processes like LDL migration, foam cell formation, and plaque development.

Question 28

Describe the structure of an artery, including its layers.

Answer 28

An artery consists of three layers: the intima (innermost layer with endothelial cells), the media (middle layer with smooth muscle cells), and the adventitia (outer layer with collagen and elastin).

Question 29

Explain the process of foam cell formation in atherosclerosis.

Answer 29

Foam cells are formed when macrophages overeat on LDL in the artery wall, leading to the accumulation of lipid-laden cells that contribute to plaque formation.

Question 30

What are the consequences of a fibro-inflammatory lipid plaque in atherosclerosis?

Answer 30

A fibro-inflammatory lipid plaque can lead to further inflammation, macrophage activation, and narrowing of blood vessels, increasing the risk of complications like heart attacks or strokes.

Question 31

Describe the process of plaque rupture and its consequences in the body.

Answer 31

When the plaque becomes unstable and cracks occur in the calcified cap, it may rupture, leading to the formation of a blood clot and artery occlusion, which can block blood flow and cause ischaemia.

Question 32

Define ischaemia and explain its impact on tissues.

Answer 32

Ischaemia is a condition where there is a lack of oxygen supply to tissues due to blood vessel occlusion, leading to reduced ATP production and posing a severe threat to body tissues.

Question 33

How does reperfusion contribute to tissue damage after ischaemia?

Answer 33

Reperfusion is the restoration of blood flow after ischaemia, leading to the sudden influx of oxygen and formation of highly reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can cause severe damage to surrounding tissues.

Question 34

Describe orthostatic hypotension and its causes.

Answer 34

Orthostatic hypotension is the phenomenon of feeling lightheaded and sweating upon quickly getting up, caused by a sudden drop in blood pressure.

Question 35

What is the role of the baroreceptor reflex in regulating blood pressure?

Answer 35

The baroreceptor reflex responds to sudden changes in blood pressure by widening arteries, lowering heart rate, and reducing cardiac output to bring arterial pressure back to normal.

Question 36

Explain the long-term regulation of blood pressure by the kidneys.

Answer 36

The kidneys help maintain normal blood pressure by regulating body fluid balance and blood volume through mechanisms like pressure natriuresis, which involves excreting more sodium and water when blood pressure is high.

Question 37

Describe the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone system (RAAS) and its role in blood pressure regulation.

Answer 37

The RAAS is a hormonal mechanism in the kidneys that regulates blood pressure. When pressure drops, the kidneys release renin, which leads to the production of angiotensin II and aldosterone. These hormones signal the kidneys to retain water and salt, increasing blood pressure.

Question 38

What are the functions of angiotensin II and aldosterone in the body?

Answer 38

Angiotensin II and aldosterone instruct the kidneys to retain water and salt, leading to increased blood pressure. Angiotensin II also causes vasoconstriction, narrowing the arteries.

Question 39

How do ACE-inhibitors work in the treatment of hypertension?

Answer 39

ACE-inhibitors block the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II, reducing vasoconstriction and lowering blood pressure.

Question 40

Define primary hypertension and secondary hypertension.

Answer 40

Primary hypertension is the most common type with no single known cause, often linked to aging and environmental factors. Secondary hypertension is caused by an underlying condition like kidney disease or sleep apnoea.

Question 41

Describe the significance of maintaining blood pressure levels below 120/80 mmHg.

Answer 41

Keeping blood pressure below 120/80 mmHg is crucial for preventing cardiovascular diseases and chronic kidney disease.

Question 42

What is white-coat hypertension and how is it diagnosed more reliably?

Answer 42

White-coat hypertension is when blood pressure is normal at home but elevated in clinical settings. It can be more accurately diagnosed using 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure monitoring, which captures fluctuations throughout the day.