Speed Review: Only the good stuff Flashcards
How are organic compounds made?
Are built by joining monomers (small molecules) together into polymers (macromolecules).
Carbohydrates
• Organic
• Includes sugars, glycogen, starches, and cellulose.
- Starches/cellulose are found in plants but still important to mention.
- Glucose in primary cellular fuel (carbohydrate)
- DNA/RNA there’s carbohydrates as part of the structure
• Composed of C, H, and O.
• Are main source of chemical energy for metabolism.
• Classified by # of sugar units (=size)
Component of the plasma membrane
98% Lipids
- 76% phospholipids
- 20% cholestorol
- 5% glycolipids
2% Proteins
What is a glycolipid?
- is a phospholipid that has a sugar lipid attached to it
- Glycoproteins are used as biologic markers. Everycell type has a dif pattern of sugars and we can use that as recognition markers
List 5 Functions of Membrane Proteins
1) Transporters → as channels or carriers.
2) Receptors for chemical messengers.
3) Enzymes that catalyze reactions.
4) Markers in cell recognition.
5) Anchors to cell’s cytoskeleton. (Some proteins anchor cells to each other or provide structural stability)
Cytoplasm:
- Define
- 2 major elements
• Cellular material b/t the plasma membrane & nucleus.
Has 2 major elements:
1) Cytosol:
2) Organelles: specialized structures that have specific functions necessary for the life of the cell.
- most organelles are membrane-bound
3 kinds of Golgi vesicles:
Secretory vesicle:
• pkged and move towards PM where it fused and expels the protein out of the cell via exocytosis
Memebrane vesicles:
• they’re mostly empty and they fuse with the memb to replenish the membrane. Basicly bring new proteins and phosolips to replenish the PM
Transport vesicle:
• brings the enzymes (digestive) to the lysosomes, fuses with the lysosomes and replenished the stock of digestive enzymes
Cytoskeleton
- A network of protein filaments that extend throughout the cytosol.
- The protein filiments can attached and guide organelles/proteins to where they need to go
Function: provides structure & support, and also aids in the movement of structures within the cell.
Hair Growth - 3 stages
Each hair follicle goes thru a growth cycle which includes:
i) Growth stage → cells of matrix divide
ii) Regression stage → matrix cells stop
dividing
iii) Resting stage → nothing happens
After resting stage, old hair root falls out of follicle and a new hair begins to grow
Ceruminous glands
are modified apocrine glands found in skin lining the external ear canal
> Secrete sticky earwax (cerumen)
> Helps prevent foreign substances from entering ear
Osteoprogenitor cells
- Mitotic stem cells found in periosteum & endosteum
- only bone cells that undergo cell division (mitotic)
- Come from Mesenchyme tissue (embryonic connective tissue in which all other connective tissues arise)
- eventually divide and turn into osteoblasts
Term for a bone growing in legth
Term for a bone growing in width
Interstitial (growns in legth by more chondrocytes and condroblasts are produce that produces more cartilage)
Appositional (grows in thickness width. New chondroblasts are produced around the peripheral of the model that produces more cartilage so it grows outward)
Calcium Homeostasis
• Bone is the body’s major calcium reservoir
• Calcium must be maintained in a very narrow range that our blood calcium levels must be maintained at (9-11mg/100ml). Our bone tissue acts like a buffer where if calcium is too high the boens can absorb the calcium or relase some if cacium is too low.
• Calcium concentration in the blood is regulated by two hormones:
1) Calcitonin (trigger with high Ca2+ levels)
2) Parathyroid hormone (PTH) (tiggered with low Ca2+ levels)
sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
- specialized smooth ER
- Functions to store & release Ca2+
- Has a series of channels that run longitudinally along the myofibril
- Has dilated end sacs called terminal cisterns at the A band/I band junctions
- A T-tubule & the 2 cisterns on either side of it forms a triad
Spinal chord start and end
- Cord extends from the medulla oblongata to the superior border of the second lumbar vertebra
- It terminates at the conus medullaris
Desending tracts involve Includes 2 motor neurons
Upper motor neuron: has its cell body in the cerebral cortex (direct pathway) OR in the brainstem (indirect pathway)
Lower motor neuron: has its cell body in the brainstem or spinal cord
innervates the skeletal muscle
Brain Stem: midbrain
All contain nuclei, sensory, & motor tracts
Midbrain • Area b/t the diencephalon & pons • Contains the cerebral aqueduct • Coordinates movements of head, eye, & trunk in response to visual/auditory stimuli • Startle reflex
Somatic motor pathway:
- Motor neuron cell bodies are in CNS.
* Axons extend to skeletal muscles via cranial or spinal nerves.
SNS v. PNS: Receptors used
SNS
- Targets have “adrenergic” receptors.
- Response depends on type present: α or β-receptors.
PNS
- Targets have “cholinergic” receptors.
- Two types:
i) Nicotinic (all postganglionic neurons)
ii) Muscarinic (all PNS target organs)
ANS Disorders: Autonomic dysreflexia
life-threatening, uncontrolled activation of autonoetic neurons. Triggered by painful stimulus to skin or overfilled organ like bladder. Arterial blood pressure skyrockets and can lead to blood vessel bursting in brain leading to stroke. Tends to happen in 1st year after spinal injury or in quadriplegics.
Metabolism
- sum total of all the chemical reactions occurring within the cells of an organism.
- Cells need a constant supply of energy to function.
- ATP is the primary energy-carrying molecule of the cell.
Three stages occur in the processing of nutrients:
Stage 1
- Digestion occurs in the GIT (gastrointestinal tract) and absorbed nutrients enter the blood to reach tissue cells
- Breaking down food by chewing. Broken down nutrients is absorbed in blood and carried to tissue cells. Monomers (building blocks) if breaking down: carbs you get simple sugars [glucose, glycogen] or monosaccharides; lipids = fatty acids/glycerol, proteins = a.a
Three stages occur in the processing of nutrients: Stage 2
Occurs in the cytoplasm of tissue cells. Absorbed nutrients are:
i) used to build complex molecules (lipids, proteins, glycogen) by anabolic pathways.
OR
ii) broken down by catabolic pathways to harvest their bond energy to form pyruvic acid & acetyl CoA.
[Anabolic takes simple building blocks to make more complex structure
Catabolic reactions that break things down into simpler components]
Three stages occur in the processing of nutrients: Stage 3
Occurs in the mitochondria & is almost entirely catabolic (“break down”). It requires oxygen and completes the breakdown of food to CO2 and H2O, generating large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation
>Requires O2 which is why we breathe in oxygen
>Oxidative phosphorylation - gets us lots of ATP (phosphoralation is adding a phosphate to a molecure. Oxidative is stripping electrons off other compounds then passing electrons down the electron transport chain allows us to build ATP from ADP)
Carbohydrate Metabolism
- Carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides: glucose (about 80%), fructose and galactose.
- Liver cells (hepatocytes) convert fructose and galactose to glucose. (fructose and galactose goes to liver to get glucose)
- Can transfer energy from glucose to ATP.
- Other nutrients (fats, amino acids) can generate ATP and are linked to glucose breakdown pathways.
NADH + H+ Shuttles
- Moves NADH from cyto to mito
- Depends completely on where in the body the cellular resperaton is happening
- shuttle #2 delivers NADH further down the ETC so instead of getting 2.5ATP your only getting 1.5ATP
Shuttle #1:
• Found in liver, kidney, & heart muscle.
• NADH passes e-’s to a shuttle molecule that delivers e-’s to beginning of ETC.
• Anything that starts at the beginning generates 2.5 ATP.
Shuttle #2:
• Found in skeletal muscle & brain cells.
• NADH passes e-’s to a different shuttle that delivers e-’s farther down ETC.
• Only generates 1.5 ATP, just like FADH2.
