Speed Review: Only the good stuff

Question 1

How are organic compounds made?

Answer 1

Are built by joining monomers (small molecules) together into polymers (macromolecules).

Question 2

Carbohydrates

Answer 2

• Organic
• Includes sugars, glycogen, starches, and cellulose.
- Starches/cellulose are found in plants but still important to mention.
- Glucose in primary cellular fuel (carbohydrate)
- DNA/RNA there’s carbohydrates as part of the structure
• Composed of C, H, and O.
• Are main source of chemical energy for metabolism.
• Classified by # of sugar units (=size)

Question 3

Component of the plasma membrane

Answer 3

98% Lipids

• 76% phospholipids
• 20% cholestorol
• 5% glycolipids

2% Proteins

Question 4

What is a glycolipid?

Answer 4

• is a phospholipid that has a sugar lipid attached to it
• Glycoproteins are used as biologic markers. Everycell type has a dif pattern of sugars and we can use that as recognition markers

Question 5

List 5 Functions of Membrane Proteins

Answer 5

1) Transporters → as channels or carriers.
2) Receptors for chemical messengers.
3) Enzymes that catalyze reactions.
4) Markers in cell recognition.
5) Anchors to cell’s cytoskeleton. (Some proteins anchor cells to each other or provide structural stability)

Question 6

Cytoplasm:

• Define
• 2 major elements

Answer 6

• Cellular material b/t the plasma membrane & nucleus.

Has 2 major elements:

1) Cytosol:
2) Organelles: specialized structures that have specific functions necessary for the life of the cell.
- most organelles are membrane-bound

Question 7

3 kinds of Golgi vesicles:

Answer 7

Secretory vesicle:
• pkged and move towards PM where it fused and expels the protein out of the cell via exocytosis

Memebrane vesicles:
• they’re mostly empty and they fuse with the memb to replenish the membrane. Basicly bring new proteins and phosolips to replenish the PM

Transport vesicle:
• brings the enzymes (digestive) to the lysosomes, fuses with the lysosomes and replenished the stock of digestive enzymes

Question 8

Cytoskeleton

Answer 8

• A network of protein filaments that extend throughout the cytosol.
• The protein filiments can attached and guide organelles/proteins to where they need to go

Function: provides structure & support, and also aids in the movement of structures within the cell.

Question 9

Hair Growth - 3 stages

Answer 9

Each hair follicle goes thru a growth cycle which includes:
i) Growth stage → cells of matrix divide
ii) Regression stage → matrix cells stop
dividing
iii) Resting stage → nothing happens

After resting stage, old hair root falls out of follicle and a new hair begins to grow

Question 10

Ceruminous glands

Answer 10

are modified apocrine glands found in skin lining the external ear canal
> Secrete sticky earwax (cerumen)
> Helps prevent foreign substances from entering ear

Question 11

Osteoprogenitor cells

Answer 11

• Mitotic stem cells found in periosteum & endosteum
• only bone cells that undergo cell division (mitotic)
• Come from Mesenchyme tissue (embryonic connective tissue in which all other connective tissues arise)
• eventually divide and turn into osteoblasts

Question 12

Term for a bone growing in legth

Term for a bone growing in width

Answer 12

Interstitial (growns in legth by more chondrocytes and condroblasts are produce that produces more cartilage)

Appositional (grows in thickness width. New chondroblasts are produced around the peripheral of the model that produces more cartilage so it grows outward)

Question 13

Calcium Homeostasis

Answer 13

• Bone is the body’s major calcium reservoir
• Calcium must be maintained in a very narrow range that our blood calcium levels must be maintained at (9-11mg/100ml). Our bone tissue acts like a buffer where if calcium is too high the boens can absorb the calcium or relase some if cacium is too low.
• Calcium concentration in the blood is regulated by two hormones:
1) Calcitonin (trigger with high Ca2+ levels)
2) Parathyroid hormone (PTH) (tiggered with low Ca2+ levels)

Question 14

sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)

Answer 14

• specialized smooth ER
• Functions to store & release Ca2+
• Has a series of channels that run longitudinally along the myofibril
• Has dilated end sacs called terminal cisterns at the A band/I band junctions
• A T-tubule & the 2 cisterns on either side of it forms a triad

Question 15

Spinal chord start and end

Answer 15

• Cord extends from the medulla oblongata to the superior border of the second lumbar vertebra
• It terminates at the conus medullaris

Question 16

Desending tracts involve Includes 2 motor neurons

Answer 16

Upper motor neuron: has its cell body in the cerebral cortex (direct pathway) OR in the brainstem (indirect pathway)

Lower motor neuron: has its cell body in the brainstem or spinal cord
innervates the skeletal muscle

Question 17

Brain Stem: midbrain

Answer 17

All contain nuclei, sensory, & motor tracts

Midbrain 
• Area b/t the diencephalon & pons 
• Contains the cerebral aqueduct 
• Coordinates movements of head, eye, & trunk in response to visual/auditory stimuli 
• Startle reflex

Question 18

Somatic motor pathway:

Answer 18

• Motor neuron cell bodies are in CNS.

* Axons extend to skeletal muscles via cranial or spinal nerves.

Question 19

SNS v. PNS: Receptors used

Answer 19

SNS

• Targets have “adrenergic” receptors.
• Response depends on type present: α or β-receptors.

PNS

• Targets have “cholinergic” receptors.
• Two types:
  i) Nicotinic (all postganglionic neurons)
  ii) Muscarinic (all PNS target organs)

Question 20

ANS Disorders: Autonomic dysreflexia

Answer 20

life-threatening, uncontrolled activation of autonoetic neurons. Triggered by painful stimulus to skin or overfilled organ like bladder. Arterial blood pressure skyrockets and can lead to blood vessel bursting in brain leading to stroke. Tends to happen in 1st year after spinal injury or in quadriplegics.

Question 21

Metabolism

Answer 21

• sum total of all the chemical reactions occurring within the cells of an organism.
• Cells need a constant supply of energy to function.
• ATP is the primary energy-carrying molecule of the cell.

Question 22

Three stages occur in the processing of nutrients:

Stage 1

Answer 22

• Digestion occurs in the GIT (gastrointestinal tract) and absorbed nutrients enter the blood to reach tissue cells
• Breaking down food by chewing. Broken down nutrients is absorbed in blood and carried to tissue cells. Monomers (building blocks) if breaking down: carbs you get simple sugars [glucose, glycogen] or monosaccharides; lipids = fatty acids/glycerol, proteins = a.a

Question 23

Three stages occur in the processing of nutrients: Stage 2

Answer 23

Occurs in the cytoplasm of tissue cells. Absorbed nutrients are:
i) used to build complex molecules (lipids, proteins, glycogen) by anabolic pathways.
OR
ii) broken down by catabolic pathways to harvest their bond energy to form pyruvic acid & acetyl CoA.

[Anabolic takes simple building blocks to make more complex structure
Catabolic reactions that break things down into simpler components]

Question 24

Three stages occur in the processing of nutrients: Stage 3

Answer 24

Occurs in the mitochondria & is almost entirely catabolic (“break down”). It requires oxygen and completes the breakdown of food to CO2 and H2O, generating large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation
>Requires O2 which is why we breathe in oxygen
>Oxidative phosphorylation - gets us lots of ATP (phosphoralation is adding a phosphate to a molecure. Oxidative is stripping electrons off other compounds then passing electrons down the electron transport chain allows us to build ATP from ADP)

Question 25

Carbohydrate Metabolism

Answer 25

• Carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides: glucose (about 80%), fructose and galactose.
• Liver cells (hepatocytes) convert fructose and galactose to glucose. (fructose and galactose goes to liver to get glucose)
• Can transfer energy from glucose to ATP.
• Other nutrients (fats, amino acids) can generate ATP and are linked to glucose breakdown pathways.

Question 26

NADH + H+ Shuttles

Answer 26

• Moves NADH from cyto to mito
• Depends completely on where in the body the cellular resperaton is happening
• shuttle #2 delivers NADH further down the ETC so instead of getting 2.5ATP your only getting 1.5ATP

Shuttle #1:
• Found in liver, kidney, & heart muscle.
• NADH passes e-’s to a shuttle molecule that delivers e-’s to beginning of ETC.
• Anything that starts at the beginning generates 2.5 ATP.

Shuttle #2:
• Found in skeletal muscle & brain cells.
• NADH passes e-’s to a different shuttle that delivers e-’s farther down ETC.
• Only generates 1.5 ATP, just like FADH2.