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PHARM 110 Final > Special Senses > Flashcards

Special Senses Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 5 accessory structures of the eye

A
  1. Eyebrows
  2. Eyelids
  3. Conjunctiva
  4. Lacrimal apparatus
  5. Extrinsic eye muscles
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2
Q

What are the 2 functions of the eyebrows and the 2 muscles it involes

A

Functions:
- Shading the eye
- direct sweat away from eyeball

Muscles
- Corrugator supercilii: move eyebrows medially and down
- Orbicularis oculi: depresses the eyebrows (moves down)

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3
Q
  1. What is the palpebral fissure?
  2. What does the levator palpebrae superioris muscle do?
A
  1. Space between upper & lower eye lids
  2. Only opens upper eye lid
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4
Q

What does orbicularis oculi muscle do?

A
  • opens and closes eyes
  • depresses eyebrows
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5
Q

What is the the tarsal glands and its role?

A

Their ducts open at the eyelid edge.
- produce an oily secrete to lubricate ends & reduce leakage

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6
Q

What is the conjunctiva and its role?

A

Covers the whites of the eyes as the ocular conjunctiva
- lubricates and protects the eye

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7
Q

What is the process of the lacrimal glands that secrete tears?

A
  • Tears contain mucus, antibodies, lysozyme
  • Tears exit via excretory ducts
  • COLLECT at lacrimal punctum
  • Drain into the nasolacrimal duct
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8
Q

What is the role of the Lacrimal Caruncle?

A

NOT associated with tears

Contains the glands that secrete a whitish oily secretion (Sandman’s eye) (crust section in the eyes when you wake up)

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9
Q

LR6SO4R3

A

Lateral rectus: moves eye laterally CN 6
Superior oblique: depresses eye and turns laterally CN 4

Rest CN 3

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10
Q

What does the Fibrous Tunic (outermost layer of the eye) contain (2). What are their roles

A

Opaque sclera: protects the eye and anchors extrinsic muscles

Clear cornea: Lets light enter the eye

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11
Q

What does the Vascular Tunic contain (3)?
What are their roles?

A
  1. Choroid region: supplies blood to all the eye tunics
  2. Ciliary body: helps control the shape of the lens with the zonule fibers
  3. Iris: help control light that go into the eye
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12
Q

When do pupils constrict and dilate? What are the muscles and ANS involved for each?

What happens to the pupils when changes in emotional state occur?

A

Constrict:
- close vision
- bright light
- parasympathetic
- Sphincter pupillae muscle

Dilate:
- Distant vision
- Dim light
- changes in emotional
- Sympathetic
- Dilator pupillae muscle

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13
Q

What does the Sensory Tunic consist of? what kind of receptors?

A

The retina (photoreceptors)

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14
Q

What are the 2 layers of photoreceptors and their roles?

A

Outer pigmented layer
- Absorb light and prevent it from scattering in the eye
- act as phagocytes to remove dead/damaged photoreceptor cells

Transparent inner layer
- out pocketing of the brain
(millions of photoreceptors)

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15
Q

How does Light cross the retina? What are the steps in photoreceptors?
What is a trend between those layers?

Which cells provide reception to bipolar cells?

A

Light has to pass
1. Capillaries
2. 2 Layers of interneurons

Steps:
1. Axons of ganglion cells
2. Nuclei of ganglion cells
3. Nuclei of bipolar cells
4. Nuclei of Rods and Cones
5. Outer segments of Rods and cones
6. Pigmented layer of retina
7. Choroid

decrease of nuclei decreases towards the eye balls

Ganglion cells provide reception to bipolar cells

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16
Q

What is the Macula lutea?

A
  • highest resolution of the eye
  • No blood vessels
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17
Q

Differentiate between a wet and dry macular degeneration

A

Dry
- lots of epithelial pigmented layers

Wet
- Abnormal growth in blood vessels in macula

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18
Q

Describe Retinopathy in diabetes

A

Vessels have weak wall - causes hemorrhaging and blindness

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19
Q

What does the Posterior Segment of the eye contain?
Fluid?
Role?

A
  • Vitreous humor
  • Has clear gel that allows for the transmission of light
    Plays a role in:
    Intraocular pressure (IOP): helps hold the neural retina firmly against the pigmented layer
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20
Q

What separates the eye into anterior and posterior segments

A

Lens

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21
Q

What is the anterior segment composed of?
Chambers?
Fluid?
Role?

A
  • 2 chambers
    Anterior: between cornea + iris
    Posterior: between iris + lens
  • Aqueous humor
  • Supports, nourishes, and remove wastes for lens + cornea + iris
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22
Q

How does the aqueous humor drain?

A

Drains via the scleral venous sinus

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23
Q

What produces the aqueous humor

A

Cilliary process

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24
Q

What is the flow of aqueous humor in the anterior segment of the eye?

A

Aqueous humor:
1. Goes on top of the lens
2. Goes on top of the Iris
3. Goes through the trabecular meshwork (edges of iris) and collects aqueous humor to drain in scleral venous sinus

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25
Q

What is the anatomy of glaucoma?

A

Damaged axons going into the optic nerve
- Aqueous humor does not flow through the trabecular meshwork properly
- overtime IOP increases and damages the optic nerve fibers

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26
Q

What is the role of Lens?
What is ageing in the lens?

A

biconvex, avascular structure
- allows for precise focusing of light onto retina
- goes from epithelium –> fibers

Ageing
- lens becomes more compact and dense and loses its elasticity

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27
Q

What occurs in the lens to see far objects? close objects?

A

Far objects (sympathetic; dilates)
- When ciliary muscle is RELAXED, ligaments PULL on the lens and flattens the lens

Close objects
- when ciliary muscle CONTRACTS, RELEASES tension on the ligaments and lens is ROUNDED

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28
Q

What is the visible spectrum in nm?

A

400-700nm

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29
Q

What occurs with light during a concave lens? convex lens?

A

Concave
- Light is refracted (scatters)

Convex
- Light is converged

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30
Q

What is the pathway of light? (6)

A
  1. Cornea
  2. Aqueous humor
  3. Lens
  4. Vitreous humor
  5. Neural layer of the retina
  6. Photoreceptors
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31
Q

Where does light refract in the eye (3)

A
  1. At the cornea
  2. Entering the lens
  3. Leaving the lens
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32
Q

What allows fine focusing of an image?

A

Lens curvature

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33
Q

Where is the blind spot of the eye? What is it missing?

A

Optic disk
- no rods or cones
- region where optic nerve and blood vessels leave the eye

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34
Q

What is the region of sharpest vision? Why?
What is the center of the visual field?

A
  1. Fovea (high concentration of cones)
  2. Macula
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35
Q

What is the process of focusing for distant vision.
Which ANS, muscle?

A
  • Little adjustment (6m+)
  • Relaxation of cilliary muscles pulls lens to dilate pupil
  • Sympathetic, dilater muscle
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36
Q

What is the process of focusing for CLOSE vision.
Which ANS, muscle?
ACC

A

Accommodation:
- changing the lens shape to circular by constricting ciliary muscles to increase refractory power

Constriction:
- constricts pupils to prevent divergent light rays from entering the eye (can reduce quality of image)

Convergence:
- medial rotation of the eyeballs

  • Parasympathetic, sphincter muscle
  • light rays are no longer parallel (if not adjusted object will not be at fovea)
37
Q

What type of eye is nearsighted? what happens?
What lens do they need?

A

Nearsighted:
- Myopic eye
- eye is elongated and focal point is too short
- Use concave lens

38
Q

What type of eye is farsighted? what happens?
What lens do they need?

A

Farsighted
- Hyperopic eye
- eye is smaller and focal point is past eye
- Convex lens

39
Q

What are the functional characteristics of Rods?

A
  • Sensitive to dim light (night vision)
  • Absorb all wavelengths of visible light
  • Low resolution images and no colours since:
  • Bipolar cells are converged to MULTIPLE rod cells
40
Q

How does the excitation of rods occur

A
  • by retinal + opsins
  • Through isomerization of retinal layer initiates electrical impulses in the optic nerve
41
Q

What are the functional characteristics of Cones?

A
  • Have pigments that give a very coloured view and each cone synapses with a SINGLE ganglion cell
  • vision is detailed and has a high resolution
  • needs bright light for activation
42
Q

How does the excitation of cones occur?

A
  • retinal + opsins
  • 3 types of cones: blue, green, red
  • intermediate colours is by activating more than 1 cone
43
Q

What does rhodopsin contain

A

Retinal + opsin

44
Q

What occurs in darkness for phototransduction?
cGMP levels?
Depolarization/hyperpolarization
neurotransmitter release?
What is inactivate/active?

A
  • rhodopsin is inactive
  • High cGMP levels
  • Ion channels are open
  • Depolarization occurs
  • Increase in neurotransmitter release
  • Cone + rod cells not active
45
Q

What occurs in light for phototransduction?
cGMP levels?
Depolarization/hyperpolarization
neurotransmitter release?
What is inactivate/active?

A
  • Decreased cGMP levels
  • Na+ channels close
  • Hyperpolzarization
  • Decrease neurotransmitter release
  • Cone + rod cells turns off
46
Q

During signal transmission in the Retina, what occurs during darkness and light for neurotransmitters and IPSPs in the bipolar cells?

A

Darkness
- IPSP in bipolar cells
- neurotransmitter released
- No EPSP in ganglion cell

Light
- No IPSPS, bipolar cell depolarizes
- no neurotransmitter released
- EPSP in ganglion cell

47
Q

What is lost and gained going from dark to light?

A

Decrease in retinal sensitivity
- rod cells inactive

Visual acuity is gained
- switch from rod to cone system

48
Q

What is lost and gained going from light to dark?

A

-Cones inactive
- Rhodopsin accumulates in the dark and retinal sensitivity is restored

49
Q

On-center Off field
when is it stimulated/inhibited?

A

Stimulated by light hitting center of the field
Inhibited by light hitting the periphery

50
Q

Off-center On field
when is it stimulated/inhibited?

A

Stimulated by light hitting periphery of the field
Inhibited by light hitting the center

51
Q

What is the steps for visual pathway in the brain?

A
  1. CN 3 controls pupillary constriction
  2. Lateral geniculate body (thalamus)
  3. Suprachiasmatic nucleus (pineal gland)
  4. Superior colliculis
52
Q

What is the role of the lateral geniculate nuclei of the thalamus? (4)

A
  • relay info on movement
  • depth perception
  • Emphasize visual inputs
  • Sharpen the contrast
53
Q

How does the Olfactory Transduction Process

A
  1. When an odour chemical is bound it initiates a G-protein mechanism
  2. Uses a cAMP as a second messenger
  3. cAMP opens Na+ and Ca2+ channels, causing depolarization
  4. Triggers an action potential
54
Q

What are the 3 types of Papillae for taste buds?
What do they do?

A
  1. Foliate papillae: lateral edges
  2. Fungiform papillae: Front part
  3. Circumvallate papilla: have taste buds
55
Q

What is the process for taste?

A

Taste ligands binds to receptors and create Ca2+ signals that release neurotransmitters onto primary sensory neurons

56
Q

What are the 3 cell types for taste buds? what is their role

A

Supporting cells: insulate the receptor
Basal cells: dynamic stem cells
Gustatory cells: taste cells

57
Q

What are the 3 cell types for taste buds? what is their role?

A

Supporting cells: insulate the receptor
Basal cells: dynamic stem cells
Gustatory cells: taste cells

58
Q

What is associated with the following tastes:

Sweet
Bitter
Umami
Salt
Sour

Which ones use ion channels, which one use G protein receptors?

A

Sweet: sugars, saccharin, alcohol, some AA

Bitter: alkaloids such as quinine and nicotine

Umami: elicited by the amino acid glutamate

Salt: metal ions (Na+)

Sour: H+ ions

G protein receptors:
Sweet, bitter, Umami

Ion channels:
Salt, sour

59
Q

Which CN do gustatory pathways involve?
Where do the CN take the impulses to?
What is the process after?

A
  1. CN 7 + 9 carry impulses to the solitary nucleus of the medulla
  2. These impulses then travel to thalamus
  3. Then it branches to gustatory cortex (for taste) and hypothalamus and limbic system (for appreciation of taste)
60
Q

What glands are in the ear canal?
What do they secrete and what is its role?

A

Ceruminous glands

Secretes wax:
- antimicrobial agent

61
Q

What part of the ear transfers sounds energy to mechanical energy

A

Tympanic membrane

62
Q

Which tube connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx to equalize pressure in the middle ear with external pressure?

A

Pharyngotympanic tube

63
Q

What is part of the auditory ossicles? (3) MIS
What do they do?

A

Malleus
Incus
Stapes

Transmit vibratory motion to oval window

64
Q

What 2 muscles dampen the ear ossicles.

A

Tensor tympani
Stapedius Muscles

65
Q

What are the 2 parts of the inner ear?

A

Bony labyrinth
Membranous labyrinth

66
Q

What is the role of the following in hearing?

Vestibule
Cochlea
Semicircular canals

A

Vestibule: gravity

Cochlea: sound waves

Semicircular canals: accelaration

67
Q

What are the 3 chambers of cochlea? where do sound waves enter and exit from in these chambers? What fluid are they filled with?

A
  1. Scala vestibuli (enter)
    - Perilymph fluid
  2. Cochlear duct
    - Endolymph
  3. Scala tympani (exit)
    - perilymph fluid
68
Q

What is the mechanism of hearing?

A
  • Sound vibrations beat against eardrum
  • Ear drum pushes against the ossicles which presses the fluid in the inner ear against the oval windows
  • This movement sets up shearing forces that pull on hair cells
  • Moving hair cells stimulates the cochlear nerve
69
Q

What are the properties of sound (2) and differentiate between them?

A

Compressed (high air molecules)
Rarefield (low air molcules)

70
Q

What is stimulated in the inner ear?

A

The organ of Corti and generation of impulses in the cochlear nerve

71
Q

What are the 3 steps of audible sound waves?

A
  1. Penetrate through the CD
  2. Vibrate the basilar membrane
  3. Excite specific hair cells according to frequency (DOES NOT DETECT FREQUENCY)
72
Q

Which part of the ear changes to fluid?

A

Scala vestibuli

73
Q

As sound travels around the helicotrema are hair cells excited?

A

no

74
Q

Which part of the ear has the highest frequency and lowest frequency?

A

Highest
- near the oval window (near the base)

Lowest
- Near the helicotrema
- near the apex

75
Q

What is the role of the basal membrane and hair cells?

A

Hair cells: only good for sensing vibration

Basal membrane: gives specific detail of frequency (pitch)

76
Q

What is the role of tectorial membrane

A

Enhances sensitivity for hair cells

77
Q

What does excitation of hair cells cause

A

Bending cilia opens mechanically gated ion channels and causes a graded potential and the release of a neurotransmitter (glu)

78
Q

What part of the brain is localization of sound perceived at

A

Superior olivary nuclei

79
Q

What is pitch perceived by

A
  • The primary auditory cortex
  • Cochlear nuclei
80
Q

What is loudness perceived by

A
  • varying thresholds of cochlear
  • number of cells stimulated

(encoded by increasing intensity)

81
Q

What does the vestibular receptors monitor

A

monitors STATIC equilibrium or LINEAR acceleration

82
Q

What does semicircular canal receptors monitor

A

monitors DYNAMIC equilibrium or ANGULAR acceleration

83
Q

What is involved with the vestibular receptors
What do they do?

A

maculae: receptors for static equilibrium and linear acceleration

Utricle: horizontal movement (running)
Saccule: vertical movement (gravity)

84
Q

what occurs in otolithic movement when hairs bent toward kinocilium? bent away from kinocilium?

A

Toward:
- depolarizaiton
- Increased frequency

Away:
- Hyperpolarization
- Decreased frequency

85
Q

What receptors is involved in the semicircular canals receptor?

A

Cristae ampullares

86
Q

What nods head yes and shakes head for no in the semicircular canals?

A

Nod yes: anterier canal

Shake no: posterior canal

87
Q

What happens when with the endolymph, fluid and cupula when head turns right?

A

Endolymph moves right

Fluid and cupula move together left

88
Q

Do hair cells detect frequency?

A

No

89
Q

Notes to know:

A
  • understand what the hair cells are doing

Review the cochlea structure (lamina spirals around modiolus)
- Transmits sound –> mechanical movement
- Sound waves come in – hit basal membrane + causes
deflection
- Cochlear duct built on spiral lamina –> altogether wrap
around modiolus

Review resonance of basilar membrane
- High frequency –> hits basilar membrane –> causes
deflection
- High frequency: close to oval window
Low frequency: further away

So basically, wave is travelling along the basilar membrane but only causes deflection in ONE area
o Distribution of fibers allows frequency to travel

Sound properties
- Amplitude: higher intensity = more deflection you get

Transmission of sound
-Sound comes as disturbance of pressure
- Comes through ear canal –> hits ossicles + amplifies sound and converts it to mechanical sound –> sound way will propagate though vestibuli –> down to scala tympani
o Residual sounds: vibrate at window

PHARM 110 Final (6 decks)

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