South Africa Flashcards
the case + democratization
most unequal country in the world, and that unequality is showing along ehtnic identity lines
one of the few democracies in Africa (Ghana, South Africa and Botswana, before also Senegal and Tunesia (but they are now seen as hybrid)
- also islands as Kaap Verdie democratic
one party governance until recently, last elections ANC lost absolute majority -> now governance of national unity (coalition)
in general not known for ethnic voting, but now fractions between black ethnic groups -> may gradually be slipping in an ethnic (congress) party system in which stability is maintained by dividing resources among diff groups (like in Nigeria)
= would not be good for equality and democracy
main international organizations in Africa: South Africa key player
- ECOWAS = Nigeria driving force
- South African Development Community = SA driving force
eco organizations but increasingly also political (esp. ecowas acting in civil wars etc., lately also SADC)
Nigeria and SA as power houses of Africa
also interesting case bc
power sharing politics (discussion)
consociational democracy: groups are certain their rights will not be infringed upon = similar to liberal democratic principles
- some say that SA is not consociational, that the focus is on majoritarian gov
V-dem = 1994 end of aprtheid + general suffrage for all groups
- 1948 National Party coming into power = apartheid regime, but before that also oligarchic regime with whites in power
main ethnic conflict/cleavage
Zulu vs Xhosa = black population
white population = Afrikaners vs English population
culture and nation
9 provinces + 2 regions in SA that are actually not part of it (Lesotho and Eswatini/Swaziland)
Cape coast = mainly white population = most fertile lands
eastern areas mostly still populated by the indigenous black population
- Boers (white/Dutch Afrikaners) did fled inwards more to the east to escape from the British
eastern areas are the most populated + the poorest + the most black = horizontal inequality
Four racial groups identified in the constitution (apartheid categorization that remained as measure for affirmative action, giving rights)
- Black
- Coloured
- Indian
- White
11 recognized languages - shows that there are may internal groups with cultural relevance + also political salience (esp. Zulu area sees themselves as diff)
new tension = xenophobia against black people from other countries: Zimbabwe, Nigeria
- mostly in urban areas, bc that’s were migrants are going to
- large scale riots (e.g. 2008) but also smaller forms of discrimination, like destruction local shops owned by migants
= similar to tensions Western Europe (+US) along the lines of the transnational cleavage
historical developments
pre-colonial -> Treaty of Unity
pre-colonial : already kingdoms
= Zulu kingdom (in the east) strong military society = history of resistance of colonial rule -> still feeling they are separete from the other groups in South Africa
= also Xhosa
Colonization
- Portuguese “discover” -> small settlement
- small settlement taken over by the Dutch: was a good resting place for while travelling to the east = 1652 arrival Dutch settlers on the east coast, Boers, dutch pilgrims settled -> driving local population more towards the east
- 1814 Cape Colony becomes British (was interested in settler colonies)
Boers more and more pressured by the English -> more pushed to the east = The Great Trek 1835-1840 -> conflict with indigenous population
-> Boers declared republics, most important ones: Oranje Vrijstraat, Transvaal = still provinces today
in the east = mineral resources -> English also inwards -> Boer Wars
- 1880-1881 First Boer War = English lost
- 1899-1902 Second Boer War = English won bc they broke the Boer moral with concentration camps
1910 Union of South Africa = Boers and English settled conflict: sovereignty UK supported, but also lot of autonomy for the Afrikaners (Boers)
-> 1926 independence
Apartheid Regime
1948-1994
not much difference in V-dem line
already before oligarchic with white majority, English and Afrikaners voting rights, the rest didn’t -> apartheid didn’t change V-dem
apartheid only made it a codified legal system, in practice it was already there
how did it come about?
foundation National Party 1914 = Afrikaner party = poorer than English -> resentment
suc6 in building narratives of marginalization white population -> national party gaining succes
1948 parliamentary majority
-> start apartheid policies as racist and repressive regime
key elements:
- segregation populations: 1950 Population Registration and Group Areas Act = four categories: white, black, coloured, indian + Bantustans
= main element - 1951: Separate Representation of Voters act = only white people vote
- 1983: Third South African Constitution = tricameral parliament where blacks and indians could also have representation
= so changes over time
key feature apartheid regime
Population Registration and Group Areas Act 1950
- 10 Bantustan regions = native areas black population = worst land = reservation areas, limited/worse part of the territory
*also seperating diff ethnic groups, to prevent cross-cutting cleavages (no parties that bridged interests across ethnic groups, like was allowed in Ghana)
*to travel between them -> need for pasjes/passports - no intermarriage
only whites have political rights, parliamentary system with ceremonial president
competitive oligarchy: political competition within white population (there was democracy and liberal rights, but not for everyone)
National Party kept its dominant position, capitalized on the fears of the white population
- were also parties against apartheid: white liberals, democratic alliance e.g. white party fighting apartheid
resistance to apartheid
1912 = African National Congress (ANC)
= nonviolent resistance movement
were faced with strong state = no civil war like in Southern Rhodesia, Angola and Mozambique
over time it did become violent
1960 Sharpeville Massacre = protest against Bantustans: peaceful protest-> violent response
-> violent faction: Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) = paramiliary wing
-> government cought wind of this and intervened -> Mandela emprisoned
resistance continued
- key event: Soweto uprising 1976 against imposition of Afrikaans as language education also for black population
-> shows yet again that imposition of a language is dangerous (see e.g. also Ethiopia)
transition from below?
many little strikes and protests worn down the apartheid regime: led to so many eco losses (e.g. strikes mines) -> English owners mines start to see apartheid as not beneficial
OR elite transition: elites collectively decided to have a new constitution
- crticised for not recongizing the agency of the population, the actions of below led to the elite being worn down
!another factor that played a role: end of the cold war: apartheid got support from US bc ANC/Mandela had coupled with communists
1990 Mandela freed from prison
1993 adoption of interim constitution
1994 first democratic elections (people stood in line for hours)
!before the elections they had already decided they wouldn’t be too competitive, bc whites would be too afraid if blacks won majority -> agreed on government of national unity (ANC + white national party + Inkhata Freedom Party)
national unity gov formed the current constitution 1996
*also: Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) for emotional healing rather than prosecuting people
!! gov of national unity 1994-1997
cleavages
race and language
apartheid: four official races
10 Bantustans
white divisions and black divisions
11 official languages
-> is it really a rainbow nation?
still see a lot of segregation
this division is visible in voting = it is salient
- east ANC
- Inkatha Freedom Party for Zulu independence
- west = Democratic Alliance
most important = economic inequality, horizontal inequality: diff white and black population
- there is some social mobility: some blacks really wealthy, but only very few
= overlapping/parallel cleavages race and class, region
the 1996 Settlement
liberal vs majoritarian democracy?
there was a lot of debat what it would be (ANC and NP and white liberals had diff interests)
- ANC won most of the debates: now we have majority democracy with some liberal protections
- not like what we see in northern ireland: executive always has to contain people from protestants and catholics to ensure the peace
Debate about position of:
- presidency: rotating or not -> not
*also option to do if president is from group A, the vice president needs to be group B (like in Northern Ireland) - bicameralism -> bicameral but not really strong + NO federal system
- more consociational/liberal/federal to have a strong upper chamber to protect interests of subnational units - electoral system: PR or SMD -> PR
- whites want SMD: otherwise would be outvoted everywhere, wanted to keep control of important parts of the country
- ANC didn’t want white majority controlled areas where they could theoretically continue apartheid - grand coalition (should the gov of national unity continue after 1997) -> NO: not necessarily always gov of all groups
- national gov. longevity: national unity gov 1 term or longer (to have more gradual transition) -> ANC won, wanted 1 term
- decisionmaking within gov of national unity: veto powers for population groups or not? -> e.g. Belgian, Northern Ireland have something like this
*she didn’t say but internet says not in SA - federalism = NO, still have quite decentralized provinces (central gov can overrule provincial gov.)
-> majoritarian: all things we see in consociationalism we don’t see here (no strong bicameral, no federalism, no veto) -> seems like the whites lost the most
- Hamill
- ANC also lost some: wanted eco and land redistribution, + nationalization
*constitution strongly protects property
Mixed Republican System
Constitution:
- Supreme law of the land
- Emphasis on individual and minority rights (liberal dem)
*protects both white population (property rights) and black population (repression, violence) - Emphasis on affirmative action
*preferential treatment in education and work placement
institutions:
- parliamentary system with executive presidency
- directly elected parliament
- president elected by parliament
- gov depends on parliamentary majority/coalition
-> no cohabitation: president depends on parl. majority - decentralized provincial government (but formally no federation)
!!diff from book: parliament directly elected in 200 national seats + 200 provincial seats
the president
- head of state and of gov
- elected from National Assembly
- depends on parliamentary majority
- weak veto: can be easily overruled
*shows they are stronger than prime ministers, they usually don’t have veto
**AI: veto as in can decide not to sign into law, but parl. can force to reconsider + can move on with 2/3 in both houses - selects and dismisses ministers
- can initiate referenda, strong position in selecting cabinet members
- CANT call snap elections
= in between strength president and prime minister
presidents: Mandela, Mbeki, Motlanthe, Zuma, Ramaphosa (current, from the ANC)
National Assembly
= strongest chamber: can override the National Council of Provinces with 2/3 majority
- 400 members
- 5y terms
- quite strong
- dominated by the ANC: sometimes divisions within ANC = within party competition -> can be hard to get majority
- in general party loyalty (bc closed list PR)
elections:
during apartheid SMD, after list PR (vote for party, not person)
- 200 candidates from province list
- 200 candidates from national list
!ballot paper just asks for a party -> afterwards it is distributed with province and national seats
no threshold
produces strong party discipline/control (cfr. open list Brazil) + lack of intra-party democracy
2024 Parliamentary Elections
ANC no longer absolute majority (159 seats, not more than 200)
- loss popularity: HIV crisis, corruption crisis, new generation of voters without remembrance struggle against apartheid
democratic alliance (liberal white party against apartheid) now in gov (was strongest opposition party)
uMkhonto weSizwe (same name as paramilitary organization within ANC during apartheid -> conflict with ANC about this name) = Zuma = Zulu nationalist party = new party -> immediately 58 seats
EFF = radical wing, wants redistribution, is more marxist, wants to end inequality
Inkhata Freedom Party
= Zulu party also relying on nationalism , not much loss of support since uMkhonto weSizwe
National Council of Provinces
= upper chamber = senate
bicameral system to protect diff population groups, it is not population based, it is provincial based
liberal democratic notion: all provinces 10 seats (like Brazil and US)
- diff from Germany where it depends on population size
90 members, indirectly (s)elected by provincial councils
- 6 permanent delegates
- 4 special delegates: prime minister of the province + members of parliament in the province
weak bicameral system: not directly population based + can ultimately be overruled by national assembly (also on issues concerning the region)
political parties: ANC
= most important
political parties: Democratic Alliance
also: small state + decentalization (want to do their own thing in the regions they control, to dissasociate themselves from corruption in the central state)
got a black leader to get a broader image/appeal, didn’t work: not much increase in support -> now again a white leader (John Steenhuisen)
political parties: EFF
economic freedom fighters
political parties: Inkatha Freedom Party
represents Zulu nationalism
(not Zulu faction in the ANC)
accusation of cooptation: they were part of gov in apartheid, agreed with national policies -> negative image now
important: federalism and devolution: want own little kingdom
political parties: uMkhonto weSizwe
now affiliated with Zuma as a person, riots when he was emprisoned for corruption
prob most important factor leading to ANC loss 2024 elections
