Sociological Theory Paper 1 And 3 Flashcards
What did modernity replace?
Supernatural explanations with rational, scientific explanations based on evidence and reason.
What does positivism argue?
The methods of natural sciences can be applied to studying society.
How does positivism view human behavior?
As shaped by external factors like natural phenomena.
What did Durkheim argue sociology should study?
Social facts that exist outside individuals but influence their behavior.
What is an example of a social fact?
Social class, with measurable differences such as income and crime rates.
True or False: Social facts exist independently of individuals.
True.
Fill in the blank: Positivism applies the methods of ______ to sociology.
[natural sciences]
Why did the early sociologists want to use the methods of science?
Early sociologists were impressed by the success of science in explaining the natural world and believed applying scientific methods to sociology would provide objective knowledge to solve social problems and achieve progress
What are the key features of the positivist approach?
You can establish and study social facts
Briefly explain the process of induction, development of a theory and formulation of a scientific law.
Induction involves observing patterns, forming a theory, and verifying it to establish scientific laws
What is meant by ‘verificationism’?
Proving a theory true through repeated observations
How do macro theories see society and its structures?
See society as external structures shaping individuals behaviour
Why do positivists use quantitative data?
To measure patterns and establish cause and effect relationships
According to positivists, why should researchers be objective and detached?
To avoid influencing or contaminating the findings
Why did Durkheim try to study suicide using positivist methods?
To prove sociology could uncover social causes and scientific laws. Durkheim wanted to show that suicide was linked to society, and then the value of sociology could be established
What did Durkheim find on suicide?
Durkheim found that suicide is influenced by social factors rather than just individual choice. By analyzing statistics, he identified patterns showing that suicide rates varied by country, social group, and economic conditions. He argued that these differences were due to levels of social integration (sense of belonging) and social regulation (control by society), leading to four types of suicide: altruistic (too much integration), egoistic (too little integration), fatalistic (too much regulation), and anomic (too little regulation). His study showed that suicide is a social fact, shaped by external societal forces.
According to interpretivists, why is sociology not a science?
Because it deals with subjective human meanings, not observable laws of cause and effect like natural sciences. Science = cause and effect; sociology = interpretation unmeasurable internal meanings
According to Mead, how do individuals have free will to interpret and construct meanings?
Mead says that individuals have free will to interpret stimuli and act based on their understanding, not external forces
Define ‘verstehen’.
Empathetic understanding
Why do interpretivists favour the use of qualitative methods?
Because they provide rich, detailed data to understand actors subjective meanings
How do interactionists and phenomenologists/ethnomethodoligists differ?
Interactionists believe in casual explanations through grounded theory. P/E reject casual explanations and see society as shared meanings
How do interpretivist studies of suicide illustrate this difference?
Interpretivists studies of suicide differ as Douglas seeks to uncover actors meanings . Atkinson = focuses on how coroners classify deaths using interpretive procedures
What is the fallacy of induction, according to Popper?
The idea that no number of observations can definitively prove a theory true, as future evidence may contradict it.
Why does Popper prefer falsification over verification?
Because a theory is only scientific if it can be tested and proven false, rather than just repeatedly confirmed.
Why does Popper criticise Marxism?
Because its predictions are too flexible, making it unfalsifiable and therefore unscientific.
What is a paradigm, according to Kuhn?
A shared framework of assumptions within which normal science operates.
How does Kuhn’s view of science differ from Popper’s?
Kuhn argues that scientists work within paradigms and only question them during revolutions, whereas Popper believes scientists always seek to falsify theories.
Why does Kuhn consider sociology pre-scientific?
Because it lacks a single dominant paradigm
What is the difference between closed and open systems in science?
Closed systems allow controlled experiments, while open systems are complex and unpredictable, making controlled experiments impossible.
Why do realists (Keat and Urry) argue sociology can be scientific?
Because it seeks to uncover real but unobservable structures, similar to sciences like meteorology or geology.
How do realists (Keat and Urry) challenge positivism and interpretivism?
They reject positivism’s focus on only observable phenomena and interpretivism’s view that sociology is purely subjective.
Why do postmodernists argue that sociology cannot be scientific?
Because society is fragmented, with multiple perspectives and no universal laws governing human behaviour.
Why do postmodernists reject the idea of objective truth in science?
They see both science and sociology as metanarratives—grand theories claiming to explain reality, but no single truth exists.
Why do postmodernists believe claiming objective truth can be oppressive?
Because it excludes alternative viewpoints and reinforces power structures.
POSSIBLE 2025 QUESTION:
Outline and explain 2 arguments against the view that sociology is a science (10)
provide an example of how you would write one paragraph/point?
Interpretivists argue sociology is not a science because it studies human behaviour, which is based on internal meanings - not external. Unlike natural sciences, which deal with measurable and observable causations, sociology examines how individuals construct their own realities through interactions and meanings. For example, Weber emphasises verstehen - suggesting that researchers must interpret social actions from the actors perspective rather than scientific methods. Since human behaviour is unpredictable and influenced by individual meanings, sociology cannot produce the universal laws that science requires - making it not a science.
Would you be able to write something like that? Write the second paragraph!!
Outline and explain two reasons why some people argue that sociology cannot be a science.
[10 marks]
Give at least one paragraph response
Kuhn stated that science is paradigmatic, meaning there is a fixed set of rules and principles which science uses. It is like a set of norms and values and is accepted by all scientists. Therefore, according to Kuhn, sociology is pre-paradigmatic and hasn’t reached the stage where there is a general paradigm shared by most social scientists. This is seen by the fact that sociology has a range of views and theoretical perspectives and there is no agreed set of norms and values; e.g. marxists disagree with functionalists on the value consensus.
Sociological perspectives may also have internal disagreements such ac
Merton’s criticism of other functionalists. Those who criticise Kuh however, would question whether science itself has a paradigm.
What is the difference between subjectivity and objectivity?
Subjectivity = Sociologists are part of the society they are studying, therefore are involved in what they are researching. Their own values and beliefs will affect the research in some way; this means it is impossible for them to be completely objective and detached.
Objectivity = Researchers approach topics with a totally open mind and with complete detachment, separation and distance from those being studied. The research process and findings remain completely independent of (and uninfluenced by) subjective influences like the personal feelings, beliefs, or values of the researchers.
** It’s probably better to see subjectivity and objectivity as a continuum rather than an either/or. Most sociologists adopt the position that sociology cannot avoid values having some influence, but these must not be allowed to affect the research and data collection process itself.**
Which theorists believed we could discover objective scientific knowledge and use it to improve society?
Comte Durkheim Marx
What is Comte and Durkheim’s view on sociology as a science?
They believed sociology should be objective and value-free, similar to natural sciences.
How did Weber differentiate between facts and values?
Weber argued that facts are objective, while values are subjective judgments.
What role did Weber believe values play in research?
He believed values influence topic selection but should not interfere with data interpretation.
According to Weber, what must sociologists do regarding values in research?
Sociologists should be transparent about their values to avoid bias.
What is meant by ‘value-laden’ research?
Research influenced by the values of the researcher, either consciously or unconsciously.
What are the four stages of research where values may play a role according to Weber?
- Values as a guide to research
Researchers choose what to study based on their values, as social reality consists of infinite facts and values help determine which aspects are important - Data collection and hypothesis testing
While selecting topics is value driven, the ax to al process of gathering data and testing hypothesis must remain objective and free from bias - Values in the interpretation of data
Values influence how data is interpreted within theoretical frameworks, so sociologists should be transparent about their perspectives to avoid unconscious bias - Values and the sociologist as a citizen
Sociologists must take moral responsibility for how their research is used, rather than claiming neutrality and ignoring the potential consequences
- Values as a guide to research
Researchers choose what to study based on their values, as social reality consists of infinite facts and values help determine which aspects are important - Data collection and hypothesis testing
While selecting topics is value driven, the ax to al process of gathering data and testing hypothesis must remain objective and free from bias - Values in the interpretation of data
Values influence how data is interpreted within theoretical frameworks, so sociologists should be transparent about their perspectives to avoid unconscious bias - Values and the sociologist as a citizen
Sociologists must take moral responsibility for how their research is used, rather than claiming neutrality and ignoring the potential consequences
Why did Marx believe sociology could not be value-free?
He saw sociology as a tool for revealing the inequalities in society and promoting change
What does ‘value-free’ sociology mean?
(Value freedom) give a criticism too
Value freedom means sociologists’ values are completely irrelevant to their research. This is because science deals with facts, so sociology should focus on what is, not what ought to be. Gouldner criticizes this, arguing that it turns sociologists into “spiritless technicians” and mere “hired hands.”
Why might complete objectivity be impossible in sociology?
Because sociologists are part of society and may have biases that affect their research
What were the two main reasons modern positivists argued that their own values were irrelevant to their research by the mid-20th century?
- The desire to appear scientific
- The social position of sociology
Explain why the desire to appear scientific led modern positivists to argue that their own values were irrelevant to their research.
The desire to appear scientific led positivists to argue for moral neutrality in research, as science focuses on facts, not values. By adopting scientific methods, sociology could gain prestige and respectability, which was crucial during its development as an academic discipline in the 20th century.
Explain how the social position of sociology contributed to modern positivists arguing that their own values were irrelevant to their research
The social position of sociology led to sociologists becoming “spiritless technicians” by the 1950s, as they shifted from being “problem makers” to “problem talkers.” Gouldner argued that by leaving their values behind, sociologists avoided criticizing their financial backers, essentially making a “gentleman’s promise.” This attitude, where sociologists viewed their values as irrelevant, was criticized by Weber, who believed sociologists should take moral responsibility for the impact of their work.
What does Myrdal argue about sociologists and values?
Myrdal argues that sociologists should not only state their values (as Weber suggests) but also actively take sides by exposing the values and interests of specific individuals or groups.
What do Myrdal and Gouldner argue about value freedom in sociology?
They argue that it is neither possible nor desirable to keep values out of research.
Why does Gouldner argue that value-free sociology is impossible and undesirable?
It’s impossible because sociologists’ own values or their funding sources will always influence research. It’s undesirable because without values, sociologists risk serving the interests of those who pay them, potentially causing harm.
What is Becker’s view on value freedom in sociology? “Whose side are we on”
Becker argues that all sociology is value-laden, so sociologists must acknowledge this and take a side. Traditional sociology often aligns with the powerful (e.g., police), but he believes it should side with the underdog (e.g., criminals) to highlight their perspective, give them a voice, and reveal the hidden rationality in their behavior.
What is Goffman’s view on studying mental patients?
Goffman argues that to truly understand mental patients, sociologists must take their side. What psychiatrists see as “irrational” may actually be rational from the patient’s perspective.
What is Gouldner’s critique of Becker’s focus on the underdog?
Gouldner argues that Becker’s view is too sentimental and romanticized. He criticizes Becker for only studying passive victims of oppression rather than those actively resisting it.
What is Gouldner’s Marxist view on sociology?
Gouldner argues that sociology should side with those “fighting back” —radicals and revolutionaries. It should not just describe oppression but actively work to expose and challenge the power structures that maintain dominance
Why might values enter sociological research?
- Funding bodies – Research funded by governments, businesses, or charities may influence the questions asked and direction of research.
- Career ambitions – Sociologists may choose topics that enhance their reputation or avoid controversy.
- Perspective – A sociologist’s perspective (e.g., Marxist, functionalist) shapes research focus and conclusions.
- Methodology – Different methodologies, like quantitative for positivists or qualitative for interactionists, influence the data collected.
- Relativism – If all knowledge is value-laden, there is no single “truth,” only multiple perspectives, as argued by post-modernism.
Who argues that objectivity is possible in sociology, and why?
Early positivists like Comte and Durkheim, as well as modern positivists, argue that objectivity is possible because they believe sociologists can separate their personal values and biases from their research to produce scientific, neutral findings.
Who argues that objectivity is impossible in sociology, and why?
Weber, Gouldner, and Becker argue that objectivity is impossible because they believe sociologists’ values, perspectives, and social positions inevitably influence their research, making it impossible to completely remove bias.
Who believes that seeking objectivity is desirable in sociology, and why?
Early positivists like Comte and Durkheim, modern positivists, and Weber believe seeking objectivity is desirable because it enhances the scientific credibility and neutrality of sociology, allowing it to be respected as a legitimate, unbiased discipline.
Who believes that seeking objectivity is undesirable in sociology, and why?
Weber, Gouldner, and Becker believe seeking objectivity is undesirable because it can lead to a detachment from social issues and prevent sociologists from taking responsibility for their research’s impact, potentially serving the interests of the powerful.
What is Parsons’ view of functionalism and how does it explain social order?
Parsons’ functionalism sees social order as based on a value consensus. He compares society to a biological organism, where each part functions to meet the system’s needs. Individuals are integrated through socialization into shared culture and values, ensuring they perform expected roles. Social change is gradual and evolutionary, occurring through structural differentiation and dynamic equilibrium.
What are the system needs (AGIL) in Parsons’ social system, and how are they categorized?
The system needs (AGIL) are:
• Adaptation (Economic system) – Meeting material needs (Instrumental)
• Goal Attainment (Political system) – Setting and achieving society’s goals (Instrumental)
• Integration (Cultural system) – Maintaining social cohesion (Expressive)
• Latency (Kinship system) – Managing tensions and socializing individuals (Expressive)
How are the norms different in traditional and modern societies?
Traditional = collective interests, ascribed status, particularistic standards
Modern = individual self interest, achieved status, universalistic standards
How does the organic analogy also help to explain societal change?
Societies evolve like organisms from simple to complex, with specialised institutions replacing more functional ones
Describe the process of structural differentiation
Institutions split into specialised parts, e.g. kinship loses economic, political, and educational roles to factories, governments, and schools
Describe the process of dynamic equilibrium
Change in one part of society needs to changes in others e.g. industrialisation needs to the shift from extended family to nuclear family
Why does Merton argue that we cannot assume society and its institutions are always effective systems?
Because not everything in society is indispensable (there are functional alternatives), not all parts of society are tightly connected (some have functional autonomy), and some aspects of society are dysfunctional.
What are the three key assumptions of Parsons’ systems theory that Merton criticizes?
- Indispensability – Parsons assumes all institutions are essential in their current form, but Merton argues alternatives (e.g., single parents instead of nuclear families) can serve the same function.
- Functional unity – Parsons assumes all parts of society are closely connected, but Merton suggests modern institutions (e.g., banking) can function independently.
- Universal functionalism – Parsons assumes everything benefits society as a whole, but Merton highlights dysfunctions, where some institutions benefit certain groups while disadvantaging others.
What is Merton’s overall challenge to Parsons’ view of society?
Merton challenges the idea that society is always stable and well-integrated, arguing that institutions can be independent, replaceable, and sometimes dysfunctional
What are the main external criticisms of functionalism?
- Logical Criticism (Popper) – Functionalism is unfalsifiable and teleological (explains things by effects, not causes).
- Conflict Criticism (Marxism) – Ignores conflict and exploitation, justifies the status quo.
- Action Criticism (Wrong) – Over-socialized view of individuals; ignores free will.
- Postmodernist Criticism – Assumes stability and order; society is too diverse and unstable for one grand theory.
Why does Popper criticize functionalism as unscientific?
Popper argues that functionalism is unfalsifiable because it explains things by their effects rather than causes (teleological reasoning). For example, saying “the family exists because children need socialization” is illogical since causes must come before effects. Additionally, functionalism sees deviance as both functional and dysfunctional, making it impossible to disprove.
How do conflict theorists criticize functionalism?
Conflict theorists argue that functionalism ignores conflict and change by portraying society as a harmonious whole. Marxists claim that society is based on class conflict and exploitation, where stability exists because the ruling class maintains power through force or ideology. Functionalism is seen as a conservative ideology that justifies the status quo.
What is Dennis Wrong’s (1961) criticism of functionalism from an action perspective?
Wrong argues that functionalism presents an over-socialized and deterministic view of individuals, treating them as puppets controlled by society. He claims that people have free will and actively create society rather than being passively shaped by it. Functionalism also reifies society—treating it as an independent entity rather than a product of human interaction.
How do postmodernists criticize functionalism?
Postmodernists argue that functionalism assumes stability and order, but modern society is diverse and unstable. They criticize it as a meta-narrative (a grand theory), claiming that no single theory can explain society today.
How would you answer: “Outline and explain two problems of using the functionalist perspective to study today’s society” (10 marks)?
- Ignores conflict and inequality – Functionalism assumes harmony, but society is shaped by class, gender, and ethnic conflicts (Marxist/Feminist critique).
- Outdated and deterministic – Modern society is diverse and unstable (Postmodernist critique); functionalism sees individuals as passive rather than having free will (Wrong, Action Theory).
What are Merton’s concepts of manifest and latent functions, and how do they relate to dysfunctions?
• Manifest functions are the intended and recognized outcomes of an action or institution (e.g., schools educating children).
• Latent functions are the unintended and unrecognized outcomes (e.g., schools providing childcare or social networks).
• Dysfunctions are the negative consequences that can be either manifest or latent (e.g., schools perpetuating inequality).
What are some strengths of functionalism despite its criticisms?
- Parsons’ theory of society – Like Marx, he attempts a general theory of how society functions as a whole.
- Merton’s concepts – Dysfunctions and latent/manifest functions help reveal hidden connections in society.
- System of interdependence – Even critics (e.g., Marxists) acknowledge that society consists of interconnected parts.
- Explains social order – Functionalism helps explain why society remains stable and why people generally conform to norms.
Marx’s ideas
What is historical materialism, and how does it explain societal change?
Historical materialism is Marx’s theory that human societies develop based on their material needs. People must produce food, clothing, and shelter to survive, which leads to specific social and economic structures. Over time, as the forces of production develop, social relations change, leading to new economic systems and class struggles.
Marx’s ideas
According to Marx, how does capitalism exploit workers?
Capitalism exploits workers by allowing the bourgeoisie (owners of production) to extract surplus value from the proletariat’s labor. Workers produce more value than they receive in wages, with the excess profit benefiting the ruling class. Capitalism also de-skills labor, making workers easily replaceable and increasing their dependency on the system.
Marx’s ideas
Why did Marx believe capitalism would eventually collapse?
Marx believed capitalism contained contradictions that would lead to its downfall. As wealth becomes concentrated in fewer hands, class consciousness among workers grows. Economic crises, overproduction, and class struggle would eventually make capitalism unsustainable, leading to a proletarian revolution and the establishment of communism.
Marx’s ideas
What is class consciousness, and why is it important for revolution?
Class consciousness is workers’ awareness of their exploitation and their collective interests as a class. Marx argued that capitalism keeps workers divided, but as exploitation worsens, they recognize their shared struggle and unite against the bourgeoisie, leading to revolutionary change.
Marx’s ideas
How does the ruling class maintain its dominance through ideology?
The ruling class controls ideology through institutions like religion, media, and education, which promote ideas that justify inequality. These ideological state apparatuses convince workers that capitalism is fair and inevitable, preventing them from questioning or resisting their oppression.
Marx’s ideas
Why did Marx believe proletarian revolution was inevitable?
Marx argued that as capitalism develops, the proletariat would become increasingly exploited, leading to growing dissatisfaction and class consciousness. Eventually, workers would overthrow the bourgeoisie through revolution, abolish private property, and establish a communist society without class divisions.
Marx’s ideas
What are the four types of alienation that Marx identified?
Marx identified four types of alienation that workers experience under capitalism:
1. Alienation from the product of labor – Workers do not own or control what they produce; instead, the products belong to the capitalist, leading to a lack of connection to their work.
2. Alienation from the production process – Workers have little control over how they work. Their labor is repetitive, monotonous, and dictated by the needs of profit rather than personal fulfillment.
3. Alienation from others – Capitalism promotes competition rather than cooperation, isolating workers from one another and preventing solidarity.
4. Alienation from human potential – Work becomes a means of survival rather than a fulfilling activity, limiting creativity and preventing workers from reaching their full potential.
Humanistic (Critical/Ideological) Marxism
Who is the prominent theorist of humanistic Marxism?
Antonio Gramsci
Humanistic (Critical/Ideological) Marxism – Antonio Gramsci
How does humanistic Marxism draw on Marx’s early writings?
It focuses on alienation and people’s subjective experience of the world, arguing that individuals play an active role in shaping history.
Humanistic (Critical/Ideological) Marxism – Antonio Gramsci
How does humanistic Marxism see Marxism’s use?
Marxism is a political critique of capitalism that provides the tools to overthrow it.
Humanistic (Critical/Ideological) Marxism – Antonio Gramsci
How does humanistic Marxism have a voluntarist view of human behavior?
It believes that humans have free will and actively make history through their ideas and consciousness rather than being completely shaped by economic structures.
Humanistic (Critical/Ideological) Marxism – Antonio Gramsci
How does humanistic Marxism see socialism being achieved?
Socialism comes about when people become conscious of capitalism’s inequalities and actively work to overthrow it. Political action is not automatic; the right conditions must be created.
Humanistic (Critical/Ideological) Marxism – Antonio Gramsci
What is Gramsci’s concept of hegemony?
Hegemony refers to how the ruling class maintains power by controlling both ideas (ideological control) and force (coercion).
Humanistic (Critical/Ideological) Marxism – Antonio Gramsci
How does the ruling class maintain its hegemony?
Through coercion (force via the army, police, prisons) and consent (persuading the working class to accept capitalism as legitimate through ideology).
Humanistic (Critical/Ideological) Marxism – Antonio Gramsci
How would the counter-hegemonic bloc win the battle for ideological leadership?
By challenging ruling-class ideology and offering a new socialist vision of society based on equality instead of capitalism.
Humanistic (Critical/Ideological) Marxism – Antonio Gramsci
What is an evaluation/criticism of Gramsci?
He is accused of over-emphasizing ideas and underestimating the role of state coercion and economic factors in maintaining capitalism.
Structuralist (Scientific) Marxism
Who is the prominent theorist of structuralist Marxism?
Louis Althusser
Structuralist (Scientific) Marxism – Louis Althusser
How does structuralist Marxism draw on Marx’s later works?
It focuses on Marx’s later writings, which argue that capitalist development follows necessary structural laws, making economic change inevitable.
Structuralist (Scientific) Marxism – Louis Althusser
How does structuralist Marxism see Marxism’s use?
Marxism is a science, and sociologists should focus on revealing the hidden structures that shape human behavior.
Structuralist (Scientific) Marxism – Louis Althusser
How does structuralist Marxism have a deterministic view of human behavior?
It argues that people’s actions are not freely chosen but are instead determined by structural forces beyond their control.
Structuralist (Scientific) Marxism – Louis Althusser
How does structuralist Marxism see socialism being achieved?
Socialism only happens when contradictions within capitalism reach a breaking point, causing the system to collapse and be replaced.
Structuralist (Scientific) Marxism – Louis Althusser
How does Althusser develop the base-superstructure model?
He expands it into three levels of control:
1. Economic structures (how goods are produced)
2. Political structures (the state and laws)
3. Ideological structures (media, education, religion)
Structuralist (Scientific) Marxism – Louis Althusser
How do the state apparatuses maintain the dominance of the ruling class?
• Repressive state apparatuses (RSAs) use force (e.g., police, army).
• Ideological state apparatuses (ISAs) use ideas (e.g., media, education, religion).
Structuralist (Scientific) Marxism – Louis Althusser
What is Althusser’s critique of humanistic Marxism?
He rejects the idea that people can change society through ideas alone, arguing that social structures shape everything and that free will is an illusion.
Structuralist (Scientific) Marxism – Louis Althusser
What is an evaluation/criticism of Althusser?
Humanistic Marxists argue that Althusser’s approach is too deterministic and discourages political activism by making people feel powerless.
What is the difference between a ‘class in itself’ and a ‘class for itself’?
A class in itself’ is where a group (e.g. workers) shares the same economic position; a ‘class for itself’ is where they recognise their shared interests as a class, i.e. they become class conscious.
Suggest two similarities between Marxism and functionalism.
Both are macro theories focusing on the structure of society; both see society shaping individuals; both arose as a response to growing industrial society.
Which part of society did Marx see as dominating all other parts?
The economic base
What is meant by ‘alienation’?
The separation of workers from the ownership of the means of production and control of the work process and what they produce.
Identify two aspects of Marxist theory that may no longer apply to modern society.
The expanding proletariat; disappearance of the middle class; immiseration; inevitability of revolution by industrial workers.
What is the difference between ‘determinism’ and ‘voluntarism’?
‘Determinism’ means that structural factors determine individuals’ actions;
‘voluntarism’ means that individuals have free will to make their own decisions and choose their course of action.
According to Marxists, how may ruling-class hegemony be maintained?
Through the domination of ideas and values, via ruling-class control of institutions such as education, the media, religion and the law.
What is meant by the term ‘repressive state apparatus?
The organisations that use force or the threat of it maintain the rule of the bourgeoisie, such as the armed forces, the police, the courts, prisons, the secret service.
According to Marx, what are the features of communist society?
A classless, stateless society in which the means of production are communally owned and where exploitation and alienation have disappeared.
What is the feminist perspective on society and sociology?
Feminists study society from the viewpoint of women, seeing it as male-dominated. They seek to explain and change women’s position. Since the 1950s, feminism has significantly influenced sociology, challenging its male-stream nature.
What are the different types of feminism and their key beliefs?
• Liberal feminism – Seeks legal reforms and gradual societal change for equality.
• Radical feminism – Views men as oppressors and promotes separatism.
• Marxist/socialist feminism – Links capitalism to women’s oppression.
• Dual systems feminism – Sees capitalism and patriarchy as intertwined.
• Postmodern/poststructural feminism – Highlights differences between women (e.g., race) that impact oppression.
What is difference feminism, and how does it relate to intersectionality?
Difference feminism aligns with intersectionality and is linked to third-wave feminism. It criticizes mainstream feminism for focusing on white, middle-class women, ignoring how race, class, and other factors shape women’s experiences.
What is meant by ‘malestream’ sociology?
Malestream sociology sees society only from a male perspective.
Which type of feminist is most likely to believe equality can be gained through reforming legislation and changing attitudes?
Liberal feminists
Explain the difference between sex and gender.
sex refers to biological differences between males and females, such as their reproductive role, hormonal and physical differences. Gender refers to culturally constructed differences between the ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ roles and identities assigned to males and females. It includes the ideas that cultures hold about the abilities of males and females, such as whether they are capable of rationality. These ideas are transmitted through socialisation.
Which feminist perspective argues that all men oppress all women?
Radical feminism
True or false? Marxist feminists believe gender inequalities only benefit capitalism.
True (though some individual men may benefit also).
Suggest three ways women’s subordination benefits capitalism.
Women are a source of cheap exploitable labour; a reserve army of labour; reproduce the labour
force; absorb anger.
Why do difference feminists criticise white Western feminists?
They argue that feminism needs to consider all women, in many different circumstances, not just White Western women.
What is meant by ‘essentialism?
The idea that all women share the same ‘essence’ or same fundamental characteristics and experience.
Suggest two criticisms of poststructuralist feminism.
Oppression is not just about how women are seen, but the result of real structural inequality; the feminist movement is weakened by dividing women into many different sub-groups; poststructuralist feminism ignores the important similarities in the position of all women.
For liberal feminists, what causes women’s subordination?
Traditional prejudices and stereotypes act as a barrier to inequality
For radical feminists, what causes women’s subordination?
Patriarchy
For Marxist/socialist feminists, what causes women’s subordination?
Subordination is the product of stereotyping or outdated attitudes. Rooted in capitalism
According to liberal feminists, how is oppression maintained?
Laws, policies, traditional stereotypes
According to radical feminists, how is oppression maintained?
Patriarchy
Men dominating women in relationships (sexual politics)
According to Marxist/socialist feminists, how is oppression maintained?
Women’s primary role = unpaid homemaker.
Capitalism.
According to liberal feminists, what are the solutions to women’s subordination?
Laws, policies and cultural change
According to radical feminists, what are the solutions to women’s subordination?
Separatism and consciousness-raising
According to Marxist/socialist feminists, what are the solutions to women’s subordination?
Overthrow capitalism
What criticisms are there to the liberal feminist perspective
Over optimistic
Ignore the possibility there are deep seated structures causing women’s oppression eg. Capitalism
What criticisms are there to the radical feminist perspective
Offers no explanation of why female subordination takes different forms in different societies.
Ignores class, ethnicity, etc
What criticisms are there to the Marxist feminist perspective
Fails to explain women’s subordination in non capitalist societies
What are the key concepts of liberal feminism
Argue men and women are equally capable of performing roles in both spheres, and traditional gender roles prevent people from leading fulfilling lives
What are the key concepts of radical feminism
Patriarchy is the cause of conflict.
All men oppress all women. Patriarchy is reproduced through sexual relationships
What are the key concepts of Marxist feminism
Capitalism causes women’s subordination
What are the key studies/sociologists in liberal feminism
Oakley - sex = biological differences
Gender = cultural differences
What are the key studies/sociologists in radical feminism
Brownmiller = fear of rape = deterrent of women going out alone at night
Greer = matrilocal households as alternative to the heterosexual family
What are the key studies/sociologists in Marxist feminism
Barrett = we must give more emphasis to women consciousness and motivations, and to the role of ideology in maintaining their oppression
What are action theories
Action theories (micro theories) are sociological theories that focus on small groups and individuals rather than large-scale societal structures.
They emphasize agency, viewing people as social actors who make their own decisions rather than being controlled by external forces.
Who was the first sociologist to emphasize social action?
Weber
How did Weber’s social action theory combine structure and action?
He argued that structures (e.g., class, status) shape society but individuals also make choices. For example, Calvinists’ belief system (structure) gave religious meaning to work, motivating them to accumulate wealth (action).
What does “verstehen” mean in Weber’s social action theory?
It means understanding the meanings people attach to their actions.
What are the four types of social action according to Weber?
- Instrumentally rational action: Achieving specific goals efficiently
- Value rational action: Guided by beliefs or values
- Traditional action: Based on habit
- Affectual action: Driven by emotions
What is a strength of Weber’s social action theory?
It avoids determinism by recognizing that individuals are not just controlled by structures but also have agency.
How does Schutz criticize Weber’s social action theory?
Schutz argues that Weber’s approach is too individualistic and ignores the shared nature of meanings (e.g., traffic lights work because everyone agrees on their meaning).
What is a key limitation of verstehen in Weber’s theory?
Some argue that it is impossible to fully understand the meanings others attach to their actions.
What is symbolic interactionism
How people create and interpret symbols in everyday actions
What does symbolic interactionism focus on?
Focuses on the small scale perspective of interaction’s between individuals, rather than large scale structures like education or law
What does symbolic interactionism explain?
Explains the individual in society and their interactions with others. Through these interactions, it helps to explain social order and change
Briefly outline Mead’s teachings.
Mead believed that the development of the individual was a social process and that people assign meaning to things based on their interactions. Individuals change their behaviour based on their experiences with other objects, events, ideas and people
What are Blumer’s three tenets (principles) of symbolic interactionism?
- Action depends on meaning → People act based on the meanings they assign to things. (E.g., sitting under a tree because it means shade.)
- Different people assign different meanings to things → Meaning is shaped by social interactions. (E.g., one person sees the tree as shade, another sees it as full of ants.)
- The meaning of things can change → Meaning is not fixed and can evolve through experiences. (E.g., after being bitten by ants, a person may change their view of trees.)
What criticisms of symbolic interactionism are there
- It does not ask the same questions as large-scale sociological theories.
- It is sometimes considered supplemental rather than a full theory because it only focuses on small-scale interactions.
What advantages of symbolic interactionism are given
- It provides a different perspective that helps in fully understanding society.
- It explains how aspects of society change through social interactions.
- It treats both individuals and society as important in shaping social life.
What does W.I. Thomas’ “definition of the situation” mean?
If people define a situation as real, it will have real consequences and affect how they act.
What is Cooley’s “looking-glass self”?
It describes how we develop our self-concept based on how others perceive us, like a reflection in a mirror.
How does the looking-glass self influence behavior?
We adjust our self-concept and behavior based on how we think others see us.
How do Becker and Lemert apply the concept of “career” to labeling theory?
They extend it to groups like medical students, showing how labels (e.g., “mentally ill”) shape identity and social status.
What criticism is made of labeling theory in relation to interactionism?
It is seen as too deterministic, despite interactionism emphasizing free will.
What’s a key criticism of labelling theory?
Remember: interactionism is generally regarded as voluntaristic (free will and choice)
Labelling theory is deterministic; it sees our actions and identities as shaped by the way in which others label them. It often sees the individual as a passive victim of others’ labels.
What is Goffman’s analogy?
The dramaturgical analogy: He compares social interaction to a theatrical performance, where individuals are actors performing roles for their audiences.
What is “impression management” according to Goffman?
It is the process of actively constructing and controlling the impressions we give to others by studying their responses and adjusting our behavior accordingly.
How does Goffman’s view of roles differ from functionalists?
Functionalists see roles as tightly scripted and determined by society, while Goffman argues there is a “role distance” where individuals have flexibility in how they perform roles.
What is Schutz’s concept of the “natural attitude”?
It is the assumption that society exists as a solid, objective reality, when in fact, it is based on shared meanings that allow cooperation.
How do Berger and Luckmann critique Schutz’s view?
They argue that while reality is socially constructed, once established, it takes on a life of its own and constrains individuals, like religious ideas becoming institutionalized in powerful structures.
What does Goffman mean by “role distance”?
The idea that individuals do not always fully identify with their roles and may perform them in a calculated way rather than genuinely believing in them.
What is a criticism of symbolic interactionism?
It is seen as merely descriptive rather than explanatory, as it does not account for the origins of labels or why consistent behavioral patterns exist across society.
What is a strength of ethnomethodology?
It shows how humans create meaning and negotiate meanings
This approach avoids the determinist view of structuralism, which sees individuals as controlled by external forces.
What is a limitation of ethnomethodology?
It doesn’t pay enough attention to the structures of society, such as class or gender inequalities
Structuralists argue that these structures impose real constraints on human behavior.
What would Marxists say about ‘commonsense knowledge’?
‘Commonsense knowledge’ is akin to ruling-class ideology
This perspective highlights how dominant ideologies shape perceptions of reality.
What criticism does Craib have regarding ethnomethodology?
EM is trivial and only draws attention to obvious rules
An example is a study of phone conversations showing that generally only one person speaks at a time.
What are the two main approaches in sociology?
Structural approaches and social action approaches
These approaches are often combined for a more comprehensive understanding of society.
What is Giddens’s structuration theory?
It combines structure and agency into a single, integrated theory
Giddens argues that both structural and action theories hold some truth.
What does the term ‘structuration’ signify?
It signifies the interplay between structure and action
Giddens views them as two sides of the same coin.
What is the core argument of Giddens’s structuration theory?
Structures make social action possible and are produced and reproduced by social actions
This leads to the concept of the ‘duality of structure’.
What is an example used to illustrate structuration theory?
Language
Grammar is the structure of language, created and altered by individual usage.
Fill in the blank: Ethnomethodology avoids the determinism of _______.
structuralism
True or False: Structuralists believe that individuals have complete free choices.
False
Structuralists argue that social structures limit individual choices.
What is Giddens structuration theory?
• The word ‘structuration’ is a combination of ‘structure’ and ‘action’ - a play-on-words that shows Giddens sees them as two sides of the same coin.
• Giddens’s core argument is o structures make social action possible
o structures are produced and reproduced by social actions
• Structures facilitate actions, which in turn reproduce structures - the ‘duality of structure’
• e.g. Language. Grammar is the structure of language, but individuals create the structure by talking and writing in ways that follow grammatical rules. If people start to use language in a different way, then grammatical rules change.
What are the strengths and limitations of ethnomethodology
Strength
It shows how humans create meaning and negotiate meanings.
In this way, it avoids the determinist of structuralism - seeing us as puppets on a string
Limitation
It doesn’t pay enough attention to the structures of society, such as class or gender inequalities, and the constraints on human behaviour that come from these. Structuralists would say that we do not have free choices and that these structures are real - not just social constructions in the consciousness of individuals. Marxists would say that ‘commonsense knowledge’ is akin to ruling-class ideology.
EM is trivial (Craib). It just draws attention to obvious rules that are of no surprise; e.g. a study in phone conversations found that, generally, only one person speaks at a time.
What is the concept of Structuration?
The process by which structure enables action, and action reproduces or modifies structure.
Define the term ‘duality of structures’ in the context of Giddens’ theory.
Structure and agency are interdependent.
Provide an example of structure and agency using language.
Structure: Rules of language constrain communication; Agency: People use and change language.
List the three reasons why actions reproduce existing structures.
- Rules
- Resources
- Ontological Security
What do ‘rules’ refer to in the context of reproducing structures?
Norms, customs, and laws that guide behavior.
How do resources contribute to the reproduction of structures?
Economic and social resources maintain existing structures.
What is ontological security?
The desire for stability and predictability in life.
How does reflexivity allow actions to change society?
People monitor their actions and effects, deciding whether to continue or change them.
Give an example of reflexivity in late modernity.
Feminism and LGBTQ+ activism challenging and reshaping societal structures.
What is one critique of Giddens’ view on structures resisting change?
Giddens overestimates people’s ability to change society.
What does Margaret Archer argue against Giddens’ theory?
Individuals often lack the power to change structures even if they desire it.
How does Giddens’ theory provide a middle ground?
It balances the concepts of structure and agency.
True or False: Giddens’ theory emphasizes structural constraints that limit individual agency.
False
Fill in the blank: Giddens’ structuration theory is criticized for overemphasizing _______.
individual agency
List the types of resources that maintain existing structures.
- Economic (money, technology)
- Social (power, status)
What is the significance of social action in Giddens’ theory?
It tends to reproduce existing structures.
What role does tradition play in late modernity according to Giddens?
Tradition no longer dictates behavior as strongly.
