Paper 2 Families And Households & beliefs Flashcards

Question

# MARXISM what is the marxist perspective on family

Answer 1

marxists believe that the family (particularly the nuclear family) is a tool of capitalism and its main function is to maintain capitalism and reinforce social inequalities. it is a superstructure and is part of the way the bourgeoisie maintain the social order. it is a social institution that reinforces capitalist ideas overall.

Answer 2

**strengths:** - marxists explain the ideological role of families in society and suggest reasons people feel strongly about family structures - offers an explanation of why families first developed in society - points out unpleasant aspects of family life and the inequalities of power within the family - feminist perspectives have based their analysis on marxist views **weaknesses:** - ignores the meanings families have for individuals - presents people with an oversocialised view of humans, seeing socialisation as a one way process where children are embedded with capitalist culture - its over focuses on the negative aspects of the family while ignoring the satisfaction it gives people - ignores recent economic and educational changes which seem to have resulted in a radical change in how women think of their careers

Answer 3

Marxism is a structural conflict perspective. They see society as structured along class lines with institutions generally working in the interests of the small elite class who have economic power (The Bourgeoisie) and the much larger working class (the proletariat). The Bourgeoisie gain their wealth from exploiting the proletariat There is thus a conflict of interests between the Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat.

Answer 4

The dominant social system in medieval Europe where society was based on the feudal pyramid, with king on top. In the feudal system the nobility held lands from the crown, while peasants were obliged to live in their lords land.

Answer 5

for marx, the centre of his view of society is the idea that there is a struggle between segments of society over valued resources. in particular, the battle between social classes over material goods.

Answer 6

- Engel's view = due to inheritance of private property and ownership - Zaretsky's view = due to women still doing the majority of housework and because children are socialised to accept and embody norms and values that uphold capitalism. - Althusser's view = the family socialises children into the norms and values that are useful to the capitalist ruling class eg. obedience

Answer 7

1. more workers - raising children in a safe environment 2. free maintenance of work force - domestic labour 3. teach children to accept capitalism through socialisation 4. pressures family to keep up - the family feel they have to keep up a certain lifestyle for the capitalist agenda 5. the family is a cushion - Zaretsky believed the family allows the adults to feel stabilised and ignore the alienation of their working life, making them not rebel.

Answer 8

feminsts perspective highlights the social issues that are often overlooked or misidentified. it analyses women's experiences of gender subordination and identifies the underlying cause of gender opression.

Answer 9

they believe that women's unequal access to social, political, and economic institutions cause their oppression

Answer 10

they believe that oppression is rooted in sexuality. women's bodies are controlled by violence, objectification, and social institutions.

Answer 11

Delphy and Leonard suggest that the family is a ‘economy in miniature’ This means that the family is run by the woman’s unpaid work. It is central to maintaining the patriarchal control of society. Like Marxists they believe that the elite of society profit off the work of the oppressed but for feminists the women are the oppressed and the men are the elite.

Answer 12

Women still have to take most responsibility for the domestic work even in full time employment

Answer 13

Women take on the paid, emotional and domestic work in the home

Answer 14

- socialises children into dominant capitalist ideology ⬇️ Socialised through: •• Superstructures - sending children to school to learn the capitalist ideology •• Unit of consumption - feel pressured to consume and buy things to keep up. Children have power to encourage/force parents to buying and living a certain lifestyle. - cushioning and effect - family alleviates the alienation of work and quells rebellion. Zaretsky believed the family allows adults to feel stabilised and ignore the alienation of their working life. (Example answer in book one)

Answer 15

- all society = patriarchy - gender inequality = key problem - men = enemy/source of exploitation - family/marriage = maintain inequality and patriarchal societies which maintains stereotypes and therefore the nuclear family

Answer 16

- capitalism = cause of gender inequality ↪️ system exploit women’s labour ↪️ patriarchy = causes capitalism - eliminate economic barrier = reach equality

Answer 17

- concerned on ending gender discrimination - egalitarian (balance of men and women) no enemy’s - critique to their view for not fighting to end unpaid labour

Answer 18

1. They tend to assume the traditional nuclear family is the dominant family type. Ignoring diversity in families today 2. They are all structural theories. They assume the hay families and their members are simply passive puppets manipulated by the structure of society to perform certain functions

Answer 19

It socialises children into the idea that hierarchy and inequality are inevitable and offer an illusory ‘haven’ from the harsh and explorative world of capitalism outside

Answer 20

Marxist feminists see capitalism as the main cause of women’s oppression whereas radical feminists see men as the main cause

Answer 21

An approach focusing on the meanings that individual family members hold and how these shape their actions and relationships

Answer 22

- pets - relationships with friends

Answer 23

The difference between families including: roles, organisation, and structures

Answer 24

Don’t have to know ALL: - creates better variety of support systems, eg. Same sex couples - provides a greater social world to experience - women no longer oppressed badly by patriarchal relationships = post modernism - flexibility in relationships - Giddens, confluent love - no gender roles - feminists = no evidence it doesn’t socialise kids as good

Answer 25

Don’t have to know ALL: - can be less cohesive and hard to form shared norms and values - functionalist - can go against religious or cultural views and norms - ‘zombie families’ cannot provide (Beck) - doesn’t support necessary socialisation AS well - functionalist, parsons - leads to society breaking down, kids less socialised - new right

Answer 26

Where modern society is fairly fixed in its structure. Nuclear families are best suited to the capitalist working structure

Answer 27

**DIVERSITY = BAD** - modernist perspective - nuclear families are better suited. - they see the split functions of the family into father and mother/husband and wife as beneficial (nuclear family is good) - other family types are dysfunctional as they are less able to support the necessary socialisation of children

Answer 28

**DIVERSITY = BAD** - patriarchal nuclear family is the only natural family type. Biological distinctions between men and women mean they are suited to the role of breadwinner and career. - marriage is necessary and more stable and shows a deliberate and permanent commitment. - Cohabiting is a negative trend as it’s more likely to end marriage. ⬆️ Harry Benson - cohabiting is more likely to break down in the first three years than a marriage. Cohabiting = 20% ended, marriage = 6% ended - social policy has increased diversity by supporting non - nuclear family types eg. Single mother benefit. This leads to society breaking down as children are more vulnerable in non-nuclear families. They are not socialised into societal norms and expectations

Answer 29

**DIVERSITY = OVER-EXAGGERATED** Chester: neo-conventional family: neo-conventional families (nuclear families but not as patriarchal). - movement away from gender roles, more equal partnership in domestic labour and wage earning. The family is still nuclear but the organisation is different. - majority of families are still nuclear and most non nuclear family types either were or will become nuclear. - most cohabiting families are temporary before getting married

Answer 30

**DIVERSITY = GREAT** Study in 1980’s found family becoming more diverse. Looked at the changes to social policy and found this allowed for more diversity in the family. Identified 5 types of family diversity: - organisational: Differences in the way family organises its obligations. eg. More diversity in gender roles and expectations - cultural: Social differences in families from different ethnicities - social class: MC and WC had different ways of organising the family - life course: Stage of life we are at means the family is structured and organised in different ways. Eg. Young 20 yr old couple and mid 40’s family - cohort: The different generations had different expectations and roles in the family

Answer 31

**DIVERSITY = GREAT** - society is now more fractured and divided. People now exist as a collection of subcultures - people can create their identities from a variety of cultures and sexualities and social movements - the rapid rise of tech has dissolved the previous geographical and generational barriers making life less predictable - David Cheadle argues this decreases stability and increases freedom. Therefore we can no longer generalise about family life as it is too fractured and diverse

Answer 32

**DIVERSITY = GREAT** The increased freedom has allowed women to no longer be oppressed by patriarchal relationships. Through life history interviews Stacey found that postmodern family’s women have been the agents of change rather than men. Women are creating families on their own terms

Answer 33

**DIVERSITY = GREAT** We live in a risk society because we have more freedom to make choice so we are more aware if the risks to be able to calculate the risk reward ratio. People can now negotiate their roles in the relationships, they are not confined by the patriarchal gender roles if traditional nuclear families. This means people can calculate what roles best suit their partnership. However there are zombie families where they appear to function but cannot provide. They don’t end due to the need for comfort and structure in the postmodern world.

Answer 34

- Relationships have moved from need to want. there is greater choice in what we can do so we have greater equality and flexibility in relationships. - this leads to a personal choice of family for personal satisfaction. marriages are less secure and only held by the will of people in them. these are referred to as **pure relationships**. they are less stable, leading to greater family diversity

Answer 35

- agree with individualisation thesis from Beck and Giddens that there is greater family diversity but disagree that people have complete freedom of choice. this is because we are still limited by traditional norms.

Answer 36

That we have choices but these are always made within a web of connectedness; all choices are linked and influenced by our networks of existing relationships and interwoven personal histories.

Answer 37

may argues power structures are changing not disappearing. women have more rights but there are still barriers to accessing freedom in society

Answer 38

ideas/policies made by political parties and government designed to affect/improve quality of life

Answer 39

more women have more power = more file for divorces, this leads to more lone parents and re-marriages

Answer 40

undermine. it shows women are not property (but in long term (chester) they will become nuclear families again

Answer 41

women. as it is shown they are not mens property and have power

Answer 42

raise in the number of children. enforces a certain role of women in the family, as they have longer paid leave. benefits child centred society

Answer 43

both. support = because more women have kids, encourages traditional roles undermine = can encourage single mothers due to paid leave

Answer 44

women - can now be a lone parent; have a child and get paid still

Answer 45

- more marriages and therefore diversity in families - decreases the social expectations of men unable to foster care - rise in adoption

Answer 46

undermine. goes against what 'traditional' nuclear family looks like

Answer 47

same sex couples

Answer 48

- rise in children, knowing its supported and you will gain money. - poor families can afford to have children - provides basic standard of living

Answer 49

support. allows support for nuclear family as it encourages them to have kids

Answer 50

poorer families

Answer 51

more confidence to get a divorce, knowing there is support = more lone parents

Answer 52

undermine = more lone parents

Answer 53

lone parents

Answer 54

negative view. - donzelot sees policy as a form of state power/control and survelliance over families - argues doctors and social workers use their knowledge to control and change families - argue social pocies operate in the interests of the capitalist class and reverse progress made.

Answer 55

negative view. - argut it has reinforced the patriarchy - only benefits men, not usually women

Answer 56

- some polcies have damaged marriage and the nuclear family by promoting deviant family types/lifestyles - state should still play a MINIMAL role in peoples lives - family is naturally self-reliant

Answer 57

- state serves the interests of society as a whole eg. free healthcare - but they assume all families benefit equally and there is a progress

Answer 58

positive view - policy supports us all as a whole and keeps us going as a group - helps develop and support families

Answer 59

positive view. - social policies relating to equal work pay and opportunties has helped women to insist on more equality in the family

Answer 60

negative label, social disapproval or shame attached to a person, action, or relationship

Answer 61

decline in the influence of religion in society

Answer 62

It is bad. Following consequences: - elimination of nuclear family, they don’t believe other families can survive without it. - negative influence on kids as they are more likely to be deviant - rising number of single mothers who depend on and take advantage of the welfare system Charles Murray: Believes the above + Claims that single parents are part of an ‘underclass’ that brings up kids in a dependency culture in which they become deviant

Answer 63

It is good. - see post modernism as there cause behind changes in relationship trends - people have more opportunities. Free to enter and exit relationships, creating diversity. at the same time people get a divorce easier if a ‘more perfect’ partner comes - creating more diversity Beck and BG call this a clash between love and individual freedom

Answer 64

It is bad. - see divorce as being detrimental (harmful) to children and parents should stay together - Rodger’s and Pryor argue children of divorced parents experience more poverty, poor housing, behavioural problems, teenage pregnancy, and educational underachievement

Answer 65

It is good. The higher expectations people place in marriage today is a major cause of rising divorce rates. However, people’s continuation with marriage demonstrates a continued commitment to marriage within society. Therefore, **divorce isn’t that bad as they are likely to get married again**

Answer 66

It is good. Women won’t have the burden of housework etc. this frees women from the oppression of marriage.

Answer 67

**pros** - kids learn to relate with different people - kids develop good problem solving skills - more diversity - good financial security and family support **cons** - conflict increase within families - tense relationships affects a kids wellbeing and attitude

Answer 68

**pros** - more decision making power - strong sense of community - kids appreciate value of parenthood **cons** - work overload - kids can get stressed and see a difference between friends lives - kids prone to negative wellbeing

Answer 69

- change in gender roles - domestic labour reliant on women still (radical feminism) - increase in state policy supporting single parents - more women working - equal pay, so they don’t rely on men for income - less focus on religion (secularisation) - more cohabitation = no reason to get married

Answer 70

**confluent love** The individualisation of society means that *people are looking for more meaningful relationships, and when these are no longer fulfilling the individual they will move on*

Answer 71

**liquid love** In a postmodern world we are so focused on on consumption that we can only form temporary relationships that satisfy immediate needs. To him our relationships are made up of fragile bonds. Overall it shows that our relationships are made out of fragile bonds due to a lack of self love. This relates to marriages today as we see a mental health increase = no self love which means relationships are made temporary.

Answer 72

**pros** - feminists view cohabitation as an advancement in society as it allows women freedom to not be restricted by the patriarchal nature of marriage. - Stacy suggests that women are the agents of change in the family dynamic **cons** - new right view cohabitation as detrimental to society as it removes the structures of marriage that promote social norms

Answer 73

**pros** - a study reported that children in gay and lesbian households are more likely to talk about emotionally difficult topics, and they are often more resilient, compassionate and tolerant. - lower divorce rate for states that allow same sex marriage - helps society become more diverse **cons** - lack of male or female figure in the family could lead to a lack of socialisation for the child and the child could also become more deviant - some religions, like Christianity, don’t agree with same sex couples because one of the parts of a relationship in their eyes is the ability to reproduce which you can’t do in a same sex relationship

Answer 74

**pros** - by actively managing their budgets and spend, single person households have more purchasing power. They also tend to socialise and spend more time outside than traditional families - you have your own responsibilities and privacy. You have the choice of things in your own home. **cons** - you may get lonely and bored which could decrease your mental health - chores and upkeep are up to your responsibility - living costs are higher which leads to less savings

Answer 75

- can visit and see the extended family more often - have close family connections through mobile phones

Answer 76

- higher number of EF in Asian households - depending on where you are from, it may or may not be common. (But this can also change depending on age and class)

Answer 77

- finances can be shared - reconstituted family = new EF - pensions support EF

Answer 78

- children are more supported - paid maternity leave - women more likely to take on caregiving roles for elderly

Answer 79

- single parent benefits lowers EF - pension schemes support EF

Answer 80

The roles that men and women play in relation to housework, childcare and paid work.

Answer 81

- 80% are dissatisfied with housework - fragmentation and excessive pace, and loneliness make work boring - freedom is experienced as you can “be your own boss” - not happy due to their work not being appreciated = low status

Answer 82

It is a functionalist concept. **Associated sociologists:** Talcott Parsons **Def:** a dominant task orientated leader in the public sphere, taking care of economic needs and serving as an authority figure that makes decisions within a family. **Examples:** the husband (men) has an instrumental role geared to succeed at work so that he can provide to the family. He is the breadwinner. **Evaluation:** This division is based on biological differences, it is beneficial to men and women, society and children. **Criticism **- young and wilmott argue that men have more domestic tasks. Feminists reject the view that the division is natural. It only benefits men.

Answer 83

It is a functionalist concept. **Associated sociologists:** Talcott Parsons **Def:** a functionalist understanding of the females function in the family. The role is to provide stabilisation, emotional support, child rearing. **Examples:** the wife has an expressive role. She is the homemaker, full time housewife, rather than a wage earner. **Evaluation:** This division is based on biological differences, it is beneficial to men and women, society and children. **Criticism **- young and wilmott argue that men have more domestic tasks. Feminists reject the view that the division is natural. It only benefits men.

Answer 84

This a liberal feminist concept. **Associated sociologists:** Elizabeth Bott **Def:** the domestic and household responsibilities of partners **Examples:** segregated conjugal roles - where couples have separate roles. Joint CR - couples share their asks and spend leisure time together **Evaluation:** + young and wilmott identified segregated CR in w/c Bethnal Green in the 1950’s: women as full time housewives and men using leisure time in pubs etc.

Answer 85

It is a liberal feminist concept. **Associated sociologists:** young and wilmott **Def:** they see family life as gradually improving, more equal. Roles in the family are now similar **examples:** - women now go to work - men help with housework - couples spend free time together **Evaluation:** SF more common in younger couples. SF is a result of major social changes eg. New technology

Answer 86

**Associated sociologists:** Ann Oakley **Def:** they argue little has changed, inequality remains in the family, women still do housework. They see it stemming from the fact that family and society is male dominated and patriarchal **Examples:** only 15% husbands participated in housework, 25% in childcare. **Evaluation:** Mary Boultan found less than 20% of husbands supported childcare. Society supports the division of labour by it being patriarchal.

Answer 87

Why do women do more housework? Crompton and Lyonette have 2 explanations: - the cultural/ideological explanation - the material/economic explanation

Answer 88

- determined by patriarchal norms and values - society expects women to do more and socialises them to

Answer 89

- women generally earn less so it is economically rational for women to do more, while men earn money

Answer 90

Gershuny - found couples whose parents had a more equal relationship are more likely to share housework equally themselves = parental role models are important

Answer 91

Sullivan - shows working full time rather than part time makes the biggest difference in terms of how much domestic labour each partner does, because full time brings women’s earnings closer to their or partners

Answer 92

• FOR: There is an emergence of the 'New Man' who is more involved in the family life shows that the instrumental and expressive roles are more evenly shared. AGAINST: The ‘new man’ is only a minority of men. Women still do twice as much as men • FOR: The rise of feminism means that women have more rights and power in society than previously, so are able to have roles outside of the home. AGAINST: society is still male-dominated/patriarchal. There is still lower pay and stereotypical views. Still expectations to perform within the home • FOR: The equal pay act allows for women to have careers and have led to a rise in dual-career or dual-earner families. AGAINST: men are still likely to do less housework even when the woman is working. There is still a gender pay gap and men are likely to be higher power = high pay. • FOR: The commercialisation of housework means that technology has reduced the amount of labour needed to complete housework and makes it easier for men to engage. AGAINST: this also means less jobs are needed so women are more likely to stay at home. Still a privileged position to be in. LC stil pertorm. • FOR: There are less value given to gender stereotypes in postmodern society, so men are more likely to taken on traditionally feminine roles. AGAINST: socialisation reduces the amount done by men/women. Still an unfair division of power.

Answer 93

She interviewed women and housewives

Answer 94

- repetitive - lonely

Answer 95

Families are becoming more equal Wilmott and young argue this

Answer 96

Men help with housework

Answer 97

Only 15% of husbands participated in housework

Answer 98

Increase in same sex marriage - same sex act Lower marriage rate - less pressure

Answer 99

Due to Covid and the divorce act

Answer 100

People have fewer kids - focus on careers

Answer 101

The way: rise in lone parent families Analysis 1: children aren’t fully socialised because they dont have both gendered parents Analysis 2: boys without a dad - more likely to commit crimes due to the absence (functionalist)

Answer 102

Vogler identifies 2 main types of control over family income: 1. The allowance system - men give their wives an allowance with the man retaining any surplus for himself 2. Pooling - where both partners have access to low income and joint responsibility for expenditure. This is now on the increase/most common.

Answer 103

Kempson found in low income families women denied their own needs to make ends meet. A woman sees anything spent on herself as money/essentials for the children. Leaves women in poverty

Answer 104

Edgell did a study of professional couples and found that: - very important decisions were taken by the husband - important decisions were usually taken jointly and seldom by the wife alone - less important decisions were made by the wife He argues that this is because men on average earn more

Answer 105

Where a family shares roles and responsibilities equally

Answer 106

1. Women still take on the majority of domestic labour - dual burden - Anne Oakley - men don’t do much 2. Women still socialised into the role of the housewife - children toys - hamley’s little housewife section - Anne Oakley - socialisation into the role is pervasive in society 3. Decision making - men making more important decisions - Stephen Edgell - men make financial decisions and women make domestic decisions

Answer 107

Russell and Rebecca Dobash's (1979: 2007) research in Scotland, based on police and court records and interviews with women in women's refuges. They cite examples of wives being slapped, pushed about, beaten, raped or killed by their husbands. Dobash and Dobash found that violent incidents could be set off by what a husband saw as a challenge to his authority, such as his wife asking why he was late home for a meal. They argue that marriage legitimates violence against women by conferring power and authority on husbands and dependency on wives.

Answer 108

- Firstly, victims may be unwilling to report it to the police. Stephanie Yearnshire (1997) found that on average a woman suffers 35 assaults before making a report. - Secondly, police and prosecutors may be reluctant to record, investigate or prosecute those cases that are reported to them. According to David Cheal (1991), this reluctance is due to the fact that police and other state agencies are not prepared to become involved in the family.

Answer 109

Radical feminists interpret findings such as those of Dobash and Dobash as evidence of patriarchy. For example, Kate Millett (1970) and Shulamith Firestone (1970) argue that all societies have been founded on patriarchy. They see the key division in society as that between men and women. Men are the enemy: they are the oppressors and exploiters of women. Radical feminists see the family and marriage as the key institutions in patriarchal society and the main source of women's oppression. Within the family, men dominate women through domestic violence or the threat of it. For radical feminists, widespread domestic violence is an inevitable feature of patriarchal society and serves to preserve the power that all men have over all women.

Answer 110

Radical feminists use the concept of patriarchy to explain why most victims of domestic violence are women, but they wrongly assume that all women are equally at risk of patriarchal violence. They explain why it is women and not men who are victims, but they fail to explain which women are most likely to be victims.

Answer 111

The materialist explanation of domestic violence focuses on economic and material factors such as inequalities in income and housing to explain why some groups are more at risk than others. For example, Richard Wilkinson and Kate Pickett (2010) see domestic violence as the result of stress on family members caused by social inequality.

Answer 112

A dual earner family - still NF but not traditionally

Answer 113

The family provides a ‘cushion’ from the effects of ‘alienating work’

Answer 114

Socialisation means parents are passing down and continuing their traditional (patriarchal) values.

Answer 115

1. It does not occur randomly 2. Seen to be in patterns

Answer 116

1. In low social classes 2. In shared accommodation

Answer 117

- Wilkinson and pickett don’t explain why women rather than men are main victims - not all males commit acts of violence against their partners

Answer 118

See inequality causing DV. Fran ansley describes wives as ‘takers of shit’. Arguing DV is the product of capitalism: male workers are exploited at work = they take out their frustration on their wives. This explains why DV is mainly against females

Answer 119

Fails to explain why not all male workers commit acts of violence against a their partners.

Answer 120

Childhood is seen as a clear and distinct life stage and children in our society occupy a different status from adults.

Answer 121

- Aries argues that during this time ‘the idea of childhood did not exist’. Children were not seen as having a different ‘nature’ or needs from adults - at least not until infancy has passed. - Aries uses work of art as evidence, where children are seen with adults working. - Aries argues we have moved from a world that did not see childhood as in anyway special, to a world obsessed with it. He describes the 20th century as ‘the century of the child’

Answer 122

Sociologists have criticised Aries for arguing that childhood did not exist in the past. Pollock argues that it’s more correct to say that in the Middle Ages, society simply had a different notion of childhood from today’s.

Answer 123

Yes. - They argue that childhood has improved significantly, and paints a rather dark picture of children in the past - Aries argues that children are more valued, protected, educated, and cared for than ever before. - For example, children today are protected from harm and exploitation by laws against child abuse and child labour, while an array of professionals and specialists caters for their educational, psychological and medical needs. The government spends huge sums on their education. - Better healthcare and higher standards of living also mean that babies have a much better chance of survival now than a century ago. In 1900, the infant mortality rate was 154 per 1,000 live births; today its 4 per 1,000. - Argue for a child centered family

Answer 124

- Laws restricting children working as this helps separate the difference between children and adults and can allow children to have a safer childhood because they are not being exploited by parents or working in dangerous conditions. For example, you have to be 14 to work. - 1889 prevention of cruelty to children act as children are safer and live longer with less trauma. In 1989 the children act made the welfare of the child the fundamental principle of underpinning the work of agencies such as social services. - Compulsory school (1880) and raising the school leaving age as you have to be in education until your 18. This makes childhood better as it allows you to gain better qualifications and opportunities to gain a higher status and more money which can help their children in the future.

Answer 125

• Higher living standards and smaller family sizes (down from 5.7 births per woman in the 1860s to 1.83 in 2014) also mean that parents can afford to provide for children's needs properly. According to one estimate, by the time a child reaches their 21st birthday, they will have cost their parents over £227,000. • March of progress argue this because children are no longer to be 'seen and not heard', as they were in the Victorian times. • Instead they are now the focal point of the family and are invested financially and emotionally from their parents a lot more now than in the past. • Parents have high aspirations for their children and want them to have a better life and greater opportunities than they themselves had.

Answer 126

- Argues that the 'new sociology of childhood' aims to include the views and experiences of children themselves - e.g. mason and tripper show how children actively create their own definitions of their family, based on closeness= enables sociologists to explore the diverse childhoods that exist within a single society Overall childhood is better

Answer 127

• Unlike Postman, lona Opie (1993) argues that childhood is not disappearing. Based on a lifetime of research into children's unsupervised games, rhymes and songs, conducted with her husband Peter Opie, she argues that there is strong evidence of the continued existence of a separate children's culture over many years. • Postman's study is valuable in showing how different types of communication technology, such as print and television, can influence the way in which childhood is constructed. However, he over-emphasises a single cause - television - at the expense of other factors that have influenced the development of childhood. • Jenks does not agree with Postman that we are seeing the disappearance of childhood. Childhood continues to be a separate status, and the legal and other restrictions placed on what children can do continues to mark them off from adults.

Answer 128

• Critics of the child liberationist view argue that some adult control over children's lives is justified on the grounds that children cannot make rational decisions and so are unable to safeguard their interests themselves. • Critics also argue that, although children remain under adult supervision, they are not as powerless as the child liberationists claim. For example, as we saw earlier, the 1989 Children Act and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child establish the principle that children have legal rights to be protected and consulted

Answer 129

• Critics of Aries view on the fact that the influence of media is bad or childhood would argue that technology and educational software has helped to improve children's skills and facilitate their learning • They can be used as a classroom tool the with help children stay motivated in new ways

Answer 130

- laws restricting children working - helps separate the difference between life and adults. Children are less at risk and can have a safe/fun childhood - compulsory school and raising school leaving age - helps separate the difference between kids and adults, kids get the opportunities to gain a higher status and make money - 1889 prevention of cruelty to children act - children are safer and live longer with less trauma - lower infant mortality rates - population increases and more succession in kids, bigger families - laws restricting kids engaging in dangerous activities - population increases and kids can spend more of their free time freely

Answer 131

That childhood is a cultural experience. The study showed Trobriander children and how they engage in sexual activity in keeping with their age.

Answer 132

Childhood is getting worse because.. - trend towards giving children the same rights as adults, disappearance of unsupervised games etc. In postman’s view the cause first of the emergence of childhood, and now its disappearance, lies in the rise and fall of print culture and its replacement by TV culture.

Answer 133

Toxic childhood Rapid technology and cultural changes in the past 25 years have damaged kids physical, emotional and intellectual development changes eg. Junk food, games, marketing

Answer 134

Consumption as compensation Pugh suggests that parental spending on children is ‘consumption as compensation’ - parents who are ‘cash-rich but time-poor’ alleviate their guilt about not spending time with their kids by buying them whatever they want.

Answer 135

Influence of media - believed media and peer groups have a stronger influence than parents - exposure to media is an issue. Encouraged young girls to view themselves as sexual beings - increase in social problems eg. Suicide, ed, in kids is an outcome of this process

Answer 136

Demography is the statistical study of human populations. Demographers use census data, surveys, and statistical models to analyse size, movement, and structure of populations.

Answer 137

- There’s an emergence of the ‘ new man’ who is more involved in the family life showing that the instrumental and expressive roles are more evenly shared - The rise of feminism means that women have more rights and power in society than previously, so are able to have roles outside the home - The equal pay act allows for women to have careers and have led to rise in dualcareer or dual earner families - commercialisation of housework means that technology has reduced the amount of labour needed to complete housework and makes it easier for men to engage - The less values given to gender stereotypes in postmodern society, so men are more likely to take on traditionally feminine roles

Answer 138

- The ‘ new man’ is a minority of men. Women still do twice as much as men - Society is still male dominated/patriarchal. There is still lower and stereotypical views. There is still expectations to perform within the home. - Men are still likely to do less housework even when a woman is working. There is still a gender pay gap and men are more likely to be higher power meaning more pay for them - Less jobs are needed because of technology so women are more likely to stay stay at home. - socialisation reduces the amount done by men and women. There’s still an unfair division of power.

Answer 139

Parents are not as economically dependent on children, so they will have less kids. Women are now In employment, having children later means they have less kids. People focus on careers, having children is less of a priority. Longer life expectancy meaning more generations alive at once. Lower infant mortality rate = people having less children.

Answer 140

Mark scheme: • an increase in junk food •increase in screen time (video games) • intensive marketing to children • long work hours (parents shifts) •the growing emphasis of testing in education. • increase in mental health problems within children • drugs and alcohol abuse • early sexual experiences

Answer 141

Advantage - more freedom = formed more on love than a sense of duty or transactionality. Disadvantage - less stable= more likely to breakdown.

Answer 142

Maintains the unequal division of labour - women caring for emotional needs of family and paid and unpaid labour.

Answer 143

Shifted and fragmented institution - emphasis on diversity and nuclear family is only one. The family is a product of personal preferences and life-style choices rather than a fixed institution.

Answer 144

Cultural, Social class, generational, organisational and life stage.

Answer 145

Men feeling challenge eg, women challenging their behaviour or exerting power over them

Answer 146

Parsons - as society changes the family changes to be the best fit.

Answer 147

Disagree - largely an illusion as the family cannot meet the members needs

Answer 148

Immigration is the movement of individuals away from their country of origin to a new country (People arriving) Emigration indicates people leaving the country in question (exit)

Answer 149

The difference between the number of persons who enter a territory (immigrants) and number of people who leave (emigrants) generally calculated over a year

Answer 150

- increases labour supply and promoting innovation - Increases poverty

Answer 151

**The family** - Lower fertility rates, an increase in bean pole families - Women free to go to work – more dual earner couples **the dependency ratio** - Few people of working age – greater number of dependent people - Burden of dependency may increase again **vanishing children** - Falling fertility rate – few children. - Childhood becomes lonely, but may become more valued with less siblings **public services** - More people means more pressure on services. If there’s less - it is barely used and there’s a lack of money **ageing population** - less/more to care for and there may be less/more to care for the aging population. People may have to work to support themselves as there will be more old to young

Answer 152

1. Increasing life expectancy. 2. Declining infant mortality. 3. Declining fertility.

Answer 153

The proportion of the population that’s dependent on the welfare state in comparison of the proportion of the population in employment

Answer 154

How retirement, poverty, institutionalise and restriction of domestic and community roles in later life have contributed to artificially structuring or deepening the dependency of older people

Answer 155

religions are defined by their followers - don’t believe religion has to include a God - focus on how individuals and groups define religion for themselves - religion is seen as constructed and defined differently in areas; therefore avoiding generalisations

Answer 156

religions are collections of people believing in a supernatural power - focus on the content of religious beliefs - Weber’s definition - religion is belief in a superior power and beyond nature

Answer 157

religion is a series of beliefs that unite people together - focus on social or psychological functions religion performs - Durkheim’s definition; religion contributes to social integration, regardless of belief in God etc.

Answer 158

multiple religions existing and accepted in one society

Answer 159

pre-modernity = up to 17th century modernity = 17th - 19th century late modernity = 1970.. post modernity = 1980+

Answer 160

- religion was dominant and controlled society, eg. church of England - more nuclear families - main structure - more focus on government, shifting away from catholic beliefs to the church of England

Answer 161

- traditional on marriage and divorce - scientific discovery rises, people focus more on reasoning than religion - although there was still focus on religion, people became more distant

Answer 162

- traditional beliefs decrease - divorce, same sex couples, gender equality rises - religious pluralism enters and a decrease in religion. more focused on science and facts - 5% church - increase in migration = more religion and diversity = secularisation (KEY TERM!)

Answer 163

a world view or set of ideas and values

Answer 164

Marx belives an ideology is a false presentation of the world created by the ruling bourgeois. Marx saw religion as part a tool used by the bourgeois to enable them to control the working man and create a flase consciousness.

Answer 165

- That equality will never work because it goes against 'human nature'. - Victim blaming ideas about poverty, such as what Bowles and Gintis (1976) call 'the poor are dumb' theory of meritocracy: everyone has an equal chance in life, so the poor must be poor because they are stupid or lazy. - Racist ideas about the inferiority of ethnic minorities, which divide black and white workers and make them easier to rule.

Answer 166

Hegemony, according to Gramsci, is the ruling class's ideological domination over society, where their beliefs and values are accepted as common sense. However, Gramsci argues that the working class can develop a dual consciousness, combining ruling-class ideas with those formed from their own experiences of exploitation. This allows them to challenge hegemony and develop class consciousness, potentially leading to the overthrow of capitalism. For this to happen, a political party of organic intellectuals—workers who understand their oppression—must lead the movement.

Answer 167

Nationalism can have both positive and negative effects on society. From a **functionalism** view, it promotes social cohesion and stability, similar to **civil religion**, which unites people through shared beliefs. However, **Gellner** argues that nationalism, a product of industrialization, helps maintain social order but can be manipulated by elites. In **false consciousness**, nationalism distracts the working class from recognizing their exploitation by prioritizing national loyalty over class solidarity.

Answer 168

Mannheim’s **free-floating intelligentsia** refers to intellectuals who are independent from any social class. He believed this detachment would allow them to objectively analyze society and combine different ideologies for a balanced, collective view. However, critics argue that true neutrality is hard to achieve due to inherent biases.

Answer 169

- Nations are real, distinctive communities each with its own unique characteristics and a long, shared history. - Every nation should be self-governing. - National loyalty and identity should come before all others, such as tribe, class or religion.

Answer 170

Anderson (2006) argues that a nation is only an 'imagined community', not a real one. Although we identify with it, we will never know most of its other members. This imagined community can bind millions of strangers together and create a sense of common purpose.

Answer 171

Mannheim argues that all belief systems provide a partial, one-sided view of the world, shaped by the interests of specific groups or classes. He distinguishes between two types of thought: - **ideological thought**, which justifies maintaining the status quo and reflects the interests of privileged groups - **utopian thought**, which advocates social change and reflects the interests of the underprivileged. For example, **Marxism** is a form of utopian thought. Intellectuals who represent particular classes create these belief systems, but since they only serve specific groups, they present partial truths. This leads to social conflict, as different intellectuals produce conflicting ideas that support their group's interests.

Answer 172

Karl Popper

Answer 173

Open Belief System: A system that welcomes questioning, criticism, and change, allowing its beliefs to be modified or rejected based on new evidence (e.g., science). Closed Belief System: A system that resists change and criticism, holding its beliefs as absolute truths that cannot be challenged, often rejecting evidence that contradicts them (e.g., religion).

Answer 174

Paradigm Shifts in Sociology: Big changes in how sociologists understand society when new theories replace old ones. For example, shifting from functionalism (which sees society as stable) to conflict theories (which focus on social inequalities).

Answer 175

Science as an Open Belief System: • Falsifiability, empirical evidence, peer review, cumulative knowledge, skepticism. Science as a Closed Belief System: • Paradigm shifts (Kuhn), institutional bias, scientific dogma.

Answer 176

Religion as an Open Belief System: • Interpretive flexibility, pluralism, theological debates. Religion as a Closed Belief System: • Absolute truth, sacred texts, self-sustaining beliefs, faith over evidence.

Answer 177

Fast food Or Technology Etc

Answer 178

Child benefits

Answer 179

Anne Oakley

Answer 180

Burden of emotional, paid and domestic work

Answer 181

Matrifocal

Answer 182

File for divorce without giving a reason And Secularisation

Answer 183

Unwritten rules in society considered as normal

Answer 184

Deaths per 1000 of children under one

Answer 185

Every 10 years

Answer 186

Average number of children per woman during childbearing years

Answer 187

The emotional support and caring role

Answer 188

Sue palmer

Answer 189

Abuse and violence in the family

Answer 190

Dual earning family with traditional roles

Answer 191

Cultural, Life course, Organisational, Generational, Social Class

Answer 192

Secularisation, less stigma, women’s financial independence, rising disillusionment with marriage

Answer 193

Murdock and Parsons

Answer 194

Economic, Reproduction, Socialisation, Stabilisation of Sex Drive

Answer 195

We create the family that suits our needs at that moment in time

Answer 196

Functionalism

Answer 197

George Peter Murdock

Answer 198

Socialization of children

Answer 199

The struggle to fulfill different social roles simultaneously.

Answer 200

B) Feminism

Answer 201

Socialization

Answer 202

Cultural relativism

Answer 203

It overlooks issues of power and inequality within family structures.

Answer 204

The effort put into managing emotions and relationships within the family.

Answer 205

Functionalist believe religion is a function of society and without it society would fall apart

Answer 206

Sacred = things that are set apart, special, and evoke or, fair, or wonder, often surrounded by rules and rituals Profane = ordinary, every day things that have no special significance or deeper meaning

Answer 207

Parsons believed that religion provides moral guidelines that help maintain social order. He argued that religious teachings, such as those found in sacred texts, our key to socialising individuals into a shared moral framework, which then influences legal systems and societal norms.

Answer 208

Bellah introduce the concept of “ civil religion”, where nationalistic belief systems take on religious qualities, uniting a society under shared values. In the USA, “ Americanism” serves as the civil religion, blending religious language of national identity. People venerate symbols like the American flag, and leaders use religious rhetoric to unify the nation.

Answer 209

Malinowski believed that religion functions to relieve the anxieties caused by life crises like death, birth, or marriage. He argued that religious rituals, such as funerals or rights of passage, help people cope with uncertainty and stress, thus maintaining social stability. His research on the Trobriand islanders demonstrated how religious ceremonies before dangerous activities helped to manage fear and loss.

Answer 210

Religion is fixed and sacred, acting as a closed belief system that reinforces traditional gender roles. It views feminism as a "secular contagion" and resists any change that would challenge male dominance.

Answer 211

Religion is influenced by culture and can change over time. It reflects the patriarchal nature of its society but has the potential to evolve, becoming more inclusive as cultures move towards gender equality.

Answer 212

Despite women participating more than men, religious organisations are mainly male-dominated. For example, Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women from becoming priests. Theorist: Karen Armstrong sees exclusion from the priesthood as evidence of women's marginalisation.

Answer 213

They often segregate sexes and marginalise women by seating them behind screens while men are central. Women's participation is restricted; for example, they are not allowed to read sacred texts. Taboos around menstruation and pregnancy prevent full participation (e.g., Islam prohibits menstruating women from touching the Quran). Theorist: Jean Holm describes this as the devaluation of women in religion.

Answer 214

Sacred texts often focus on male gods and prophets, are usually written and interpreted by men, and include stories that reflect anti-female stereotypes, such as women being responsible for humanity's fall.

Answer 215

They often give women fewer rights than men (e.g., in divorce, dress codes, decision-making, and marriage). Religious influence on cultural norms can lead to practices like genital mutilation or harsh punishments for sexual transgressions. Many religions enforce women's traditional domestic and reproductive roles, such as banning abortion. Theorist: Woodhead argues that the exclusion of women from the Catholic priesthood shows the church's discomfort with women's emancipation.

Answer 216

Louis Althusser argues that religion is a part of the ideological state apparatus. Along with education and the media, it transmits the dominant ideology and maintains false class consciousness. Religious teachings encourage the proletariat to believe that the way society is organised is God's will.

Answer 217

Divorce, Separation, Annulment, Empty Shell.

Answer 218

Sexually exclusive relationship relationships that follow one after another

Answer 219

The generation that is both looking after their own children and their elderly parents at the same time

Answer 220

Religion is a tool that the patriarchy use to maintain their control and for the benefit of men.

Answer 221

Religion is an ideological tool that maintains the capitalist nature of society. Religions are use to maintain women's low status so they can continue to give their unpaid labour to the system.

Answer 222

Religious institutions are patriarchal as they are part of the patriarchal society. They create a 'stained-glass ceiling' that prevent women from being liberated and empowered.

Answer 223

The Second Sex Men use religion to control and oppress women. It creates a false consciousness that women see themselves as second class citizens whilst also believing they are being treated as equals to men. Presents their suffering on earth as divine and gives them false hope of being rewarded in heaven. 'Religion gives her the guide, father, lover, divine guardian she longs for...but, above all, it confirms social order, it justifies her resignation by giving hope of a better future in a sexless heaven'

Answer 224

God is not male Daly believed that as long as God is referred to as a male there will be no gender equality. She examined how the early Church eliminated any references to female elements of God and reduced the importance of women in early Christianity e.g. Mary Magdalene. Religions create an inequality as they give men superior roles to women.

Answer 225

the veiling of women in some Muslim communities in Britain and some Islamic countries can be interpreted as a form of resisting patriarchy, by providing an independent t female identity and freeing women from the male gaze and sexual harassment, It can also be seen as a symbol of female and ethnic identity and as a sign of Muslim pride in resistance to a patriarchal Western culture that treats women as sex objects.

Answer 226

• Many ancient religions, like those of Ancient Egypt, Greece, in Hinduism, had female goddesses who were considered 'central to the spiritual quest. • As societies developed, there were many different gods and goddesses. The mother goddesses played a crucial role • e.g. Kali-ma (Hindu), Isis, Venus, Aphrodite... • However, the final death knell for the goddesses came with the acceptance of monotheism

Answer 227

• Religion is not a direct cause of women's subordination; instead patriarchal influences reshape religion to suit the interests of men • She speaks from her personal experience of FGM. Oppressive practices such as FGM have often been attributed to the influence of Islam. However she argues that men have distorted Islam to legitimate the oppression of women by controlling their sexuality.

Answer 228

"religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people." Marx argued that religion is a form of alienation as individuals create an all-powerful being which has control over them. By doing so individuals are giving up their right to make decisions which in turn means they are denying themselves of their true humanity. For example; in Christianity God created the ten commandments which acts as a way of controlling and giving a clear guideline to individuals to follow which ultimately means individuals do not need to think and make decisions as the ten commandments do this for them.

Answer 229

• The promise of an afterlife gives people something to look forwards to. It is easier to put up with misery now if you believe you have a life of 'eternal bliss' to look forward to after death. • Religion makes a virtue out of suffering - making it appear as if the poor are more 'Godly' than the rich. One of the best illustrations of this is the line in the bible: 'It is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the Kingdom of heaven. • Religion can offer hope of supernatural intervention to solve problems on earth: this makes it pointless for humans to try to do anything significant to help improve their current conditions. • Religion can justify the social order and people's position within that order, as in the line in the Victorian hymn 'All Things Bright and Beautiful'

Answer 230

- religion is an ideology, it is a belief system that creates a false class consciousness - Religion is an ideological state apparatus that maintains the socio economic inequalities in society - Religion encourages people to accept their suffering as divine and promises them false rewards in heaven - Religions material success as a sign of gods favour and further in engenders the class divide - Religions quells rebellion by preventing its followers taking action as all things are seen as Gods will Overall, Religion maintains social control and prevents social change

Answer 231

- hindu castle system puts priests and teachers at the top and street sweepers or outcasts at the bottom - Religious people commit acts of terrorism and say that their higher being wanted them to do it - Predestination = God has already checked what people will do

Answer 232

Principle of hope Dual Character - Positive and Negative Positive: Religion can inspire rebellion - Presents a vision of the perfect world to strive towards Negative: Inhibits change - dreams of a utopia can cause people to wait for heaven/afterlife rather than creating change themselves.

Answer 233

Movement to encourage social change, unlike the tradition Catholic Church which encouraged acceptance of the status quo. Priests in Latin America led the charge in educating the poor, rising up to support the oppressed against dictators. Otto Maduro suggests this shows that religion can be a revolutionary force. Others argue that Liberation theology only cause minor changes and did not disrupt the capitalist agenda.

Answer 234

Religion and hegemony Gramsci was a sociologist during the Fascist regime in Italy. He argues that the ruling class maintain power in society through hegemony. Hegemony is the ideological domination of ideas in society. Once established he argues that the ruling class maintain power by relying on popular consent. Although, Gramsci argues, hegemony can never be guaranteed, as a working class can develop an alternative vision of society - a counter hegemony. For example, the revolution in Libya would be an example of counter hegemony because members of the society no longer agree with the ideas of their government. Gramsci argues that the dual nature of religion has the ability to help workers through the ruling class hegemony in their society. He sees clergymen as organic intellectuals - educators, organizers and leaders I can help workers see through their situation and create working-class organizations such as trade unions. All these help build a counter hegemony and threaten ruling class domination.

Answer 235

Religion supports traditional values and often resists change. In the American Bible Belt, groups like the American Religious Right (ARR) back conservative politics, funding leaders like Trump, Bush, and Reagan to reverse liberal policies. These groups push for laws aligned with Christian values, like anti-abortion measures. According to Halevy, Non-Conformist Churches (e.g., Methodists) in 18th-19th century Britain prevented working-class revolutions by offering a religious outlet, maintaining social order instead of promoting rebellion. Religion can thus uphold existing social structures and resist progressive changes.

Answer 236

The church of England causes out government policies that promote austerity and tax avoidance. they suggest that they are fighting against the corporate elite. However, the church holds huge amounts of wealth it fails to share with the most vulnerable.

Answer 237

- Pessimistic Only looks to the negatives of religion rather than acknowledge any benefits, e.g. charity work - Secularisation Religion is declining in power, but capitalist values still hugely successful - Narrow focus Only acknowledges the ideological nature of religion, so ignores other features of religion e.g. psychological benefit - Feminism Ignores patriarchal nature of religion and its promotion of gender inequality - christo-centric Heavily only applies to Abrahamic faiths - Religion and communism Marx said religion wouldn’t exist in communist societies but China is predicted to be world’s most Christian nation by 2030

Answer 238

1. Providing moral guidelines. These guidelines are created from religious scriptures and teachings and then shared by religious leaders e.g. Priests, Imans, Rabbis etc, Schools and teachers via RE, PSHE, Values, Families through parents and grandparents sharing moral values and codes. 2. Allowing people to cope with events, beyond their control, and adjust to them without breaking social order. Religion help people to adjust to large events in their life. It can provide a reason for events, or a feeling of comfort and then unite a community. Beckford found that religion played a significant role in the nation mourning the loss of Princess Diana. It helped people across age, class and race barriers. 3. Providing a sense of reason and purpose. Religion can provide a greater meaning for peoples live. Religious events create a sense of reason and purpose when events seem out of control. Parsons particularly look at funerals and how the religious nature or references provide the bereaved with a sense of comfort but also can reintroduce them to the community and their social roles.

Answer 239

Looked at the social impact religion has and the ways in which a decrease of the value of religion impacted society. Key Arguments - Religion causes social change. The rise of Protestantism led to the rise of capitalism. - Religion serves key functions in society but these have been replaced by science.

Answer 240

Weber rejected Marx's theory that religion was a tool of capitalism. He thought Marx was an 'economic reductionist. Instead he believe that religion was a force for social change and created the social conditions that allowed for capitalism to flourish. Religion is more than just an ideological tool or a response to deprivation. Religion is a social force.

Answer 241

refers to a religious justification or explanation of something e.g. there is a storm because we have sinned.

Answer 242

refers to the movement away from the magical explanation of the world, to the logical ones.

Answer 243

God has already chosen if your going to heaven or hell → started capitalism because it made the conditions for capitalism to grow

Answer 244

- **Not all Calvinist countries were capitalist!** Weber does acknowledge the need for other key factors to create capitalism, but some argue that the fact that Scotland, Norway and Sweden all had large Calvinist populations but not capitalist ones disproves his theory. - Other factors where more influential Marxists argue that slavery, colonialism and piracy were more important features that led to the rise of capitalism as they provided a large capital for countries to invest and grow. - Weber didn't really get Calvinism MacKinnon argues that Weber didn't really understand Calvinism, as Calvin was heavily opposed to material greed and the pursuit of wealth. - Calvinism didn't lead to Capitalist Kautsky argued that Calvinism predated Capitalism and that Capitalist just used Calvinism to excuse their behaviours without really believing in its values. - **Marxists don't agree as they see religion as a way of maintaining social control not creating social change!**

Answer 245

- Religious Ideas and fuel Economic and Social Change Berger and Redding agree as they say we can still see this happening in societies today e.g. modern Confucianism led to the rise of the Asian Tiger economies e.g. Singapore or the rise of the Pentecostal Church and the rapid economic growth of these communities in Nigeria and Latin America - Mormons are the modern day Calvinists Aldridge saw a similar pattern in the Mormon community who had a similar work ethic the Calvinists. They promote hard work and abstain from many pleasures. There is a large amount of economic prosperity in the Mormon community in America

Answer 246

Troeltsch, Niebuhr, Wallis

Answer 247

New religious movements are social movements that aim to alter existing religious organisations or establish new religious groups. NRM's arose around the 1950's in the west, as people started to look for alternatives to mainstream religions. In the 80's there was a huge amount of fear around them, and the media presented these emerging belief systems as dangerous and deviant. These emerging belief systems were often described as cults or sects. Wallis the use term NRM as he felt that cult and sect hold negative connotations. NRM's can be split into 3 main categories.

Answer 248

The difference between sects and cults lies in their origin and relationship to mainstream religion: • Sects: Break away from an established religion to follow stricter or different beliefs. They still share some roots with the main religion. • Cults: Start as entirely new groups with unique beliefs, often centered around a charismatic leader, and aren’t connected to traditional religions. Think of a sect as a branch of a tree (a larger religion) and a cult as a completely new plant. Cults: - small exclusive groups - lower levels of commitment - world affirming - client based - tolerant of other faiths and beliefs Sects: - Small exclusive groups - high levels of commitment - world rejecting - charismatic leadership - monopoly on truth

Answer 249

Argues that both cults and sects are similar in that they deviate from traditional religions

Answer 250

sects are the result of schisms from traditional churches- formed from resistance to teachings. Cults are independent of traditional religions and are more aligned to consumer culture and attract more affluent membership than sects.

Answer 251

1. Changing values. 2. Changing social structures. 3. Change to the role and character of religion.

Answer 252

Bellah suggests that NRMs are successor movements to political protests. The 60’s what times of huge political revolution.

Answer 253

Audience cults Client cults Cult movements This can help to differentiate between the types of NRMs as there is such a diversity in them

Answer 254

They undermine social cohesion by rejecting mainstream societal values and norms. They manipulate members leading to isolation. Impacts social stability and they claim in a monopoly of the truth which allows for the promotion of shared norms and values. Eg the English legal system.

Answer 255

New Age movements focus on spiritual growth, are less organised than traditional religions, and allow individuals to choose beliefs and practices, like a “ spiritual supermarket”

Answer 256

Traditional religions are structured and collective, while New Age movements are flexible and individualistic

Answer 257

Eileen Barker suggests that individuals involved in NAMs often have overlapping memberships, freely moving between different practices and beliefs, reflecting the flexibility and eclectic nature of New Age spirituality.

Answer 258

Drane argues that New Age movements reflect postmodernity, as they arise from a loss of faith in meta-narratives like science and religion, leading people to turn inward to find spiritual truth.

Answer 259

Bruce links the rise of New Age movements to modernity, emphasizing individualism and their appeal to those in expressive professions. He sees them as 'watered down' versions of traditional religions, reflecting consumerism and individual spiritual exploration.

Answer 260

1. Self spirituality. - individuals seek spirituality within themselves rather than external religious authorities. 2. Detraditonalisation - traditional religious teachings and authorities are rejected in favour of personal experience and individual truth.

Answer 261

1. Provides authentic identity in a fragmented modern life. 2. Offers a path to perfect perfection, unlike unfulfilling consumer culture 3. Creates certainty amidst rapid social change and anomie 4. Thrives where organised religion declines, such as in secular areas like California.

Answer 262

False. Substantive definitions are exclusive because they define religion by its content (e.g., belief in God or the supernatural), often excluding belief systems that do not fit these narrow criteria.

Answer 263

Durkheim distinguishes the sacred as things that are set apart, special, and worthy of reverence (e.g., religious symbols, rituals), while the profane refers to the ordinary, everyday aspects of life. The sacred represents the collective beliefs and values of a society, while the profane is mundane and secular.

Answer 264

Religion provides a cognitive framework for understanding the world. It offers concepts, categories, and classifications that help individuals make sense of their experiences (e.g., time, space, cause and effect). For Durkheim, religion contributes to the development of human thought by providing a basis for scientific thinking.

Answer 265

Civil religion refers to a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself, often expressed through symbols, rituals, and ceremonies that promote national unity. It's the idea that secular beliefs and practices can function similarly to traditional religion in uniting people.

Answer 266

- Ignores Conflict: Functionalism overlooks how religion can be a source of division and conflict (e.g., religious wars, sectarianism). - Overly Positive: It tends to present an overly positive view of religion, ignoring how it can justify inequality and oppression (e.g., legitimizing patriarchal or class hierarchies).

Answer 267

The main cause of alienation for Marx is capitalism, where workers are disconnected from the products of their labor, the production process, their own human potential, and other workers, leading to a sense of powerlessness and isolation.

Answer 268

Hinduism legitimates inequality through the castle system, which is religiously sanctioned, promoting the idea that one's social position is determined by karma and dharma, thereby justifying the hierarchical structure.

Answer 269

- Exclusion from Leadership: Women are often barred from religious leadership roles (e.g., Catholic Church's prohibition of female priests). - Religious Texts: Some religious texts depict women as subordinate to men (e.g., Eve being created from Adam's rib). - Control over Women's Bodies: Religious doctrines may regulate women's dress, sexuality, and reproductive rights (e.g., rules on modesty or bans on contraception).

Answer 270

Religion can be empowering for women by providing a sense of community and support (e.g., women's circles in religious communities) or by promoting social change (e.g., women using religious beliefs to campaign for gender justice, like in some interpretations of Islam that advocate for women's rights).

Answer 271

How religious someone is

Answer 272

- regular attendance at place of worship - Identifying with a particular belief system or membership of a particular movement - Practising the religion - Dedication to their beliefs

Answer 273

37% of people reported having no religion, making the UK one of the most secular countries in the world.

Answer 274

Wilson defines secularisation as “the process whereby religious thinking, practices, and institutions lose social significance.” This is a broad definition, making it difficult to categorise.

Answer 275

Bruce sees secularisation as a social condition where: a) Religion becomes less important in non-religious institutions (e.g., state, economy). b) Religious roles and institutions lose social status. c) People engage less in religious practices. This raises the question: Is engaging in religious practice the only way to be religious?

Answer 276

• Wilson: Decline in religious participation and authority. • Bruce: Secularisation due to reduced religious beliefs and practices. • Weber’s Rationalisation: Science and logic replace religious explanations. • Structural differences: Modern society’s complex organisation reduces religion’s role. • Social & cultural diversity: Exposure to different beliefs weakens religion’s influence. • Religious diversity: Multiple religions dilute the authority of any one religion.

Answer 277

• Spiritual marketplace: Growth of individual spiritual choices outside traditional religion. • Bruce’s cultural defence & transition: Religion can strengthen in response to external threats or cultural shifts. • Global variation: Secularisation is not universal; different countries have different trends. • Changing forms of religiosity: New types of religious expression and belief emerging.

Answer 278

Weber argued that secularisation was a response to the rationalisation of the world. As people moved away from mystical and magical explanations provided by religion, religion lost its function in the modern world.

Answer 279

The movement away from religion in society

Answer 280

Because it’s a response to the rationalisation of the world

Answer 281

People move away from mystical and magical explanations of the world. Religion offered = secularisation is a response to this.

Answer 282

People may believe in God but may not identify/belong to an organisation. People no longer identify - believe not belong. This is what’s really happening in secularisation

Answer 283

Day suggests that people do exaggerate their religious beliefs for several reasons: • People are socialised into their religion. • There’s a cultural tie between religion and belonging to a culture. • Religion is seen as part of being “respectable” in certain cultures, e.g., ties to the middle class. • Being religious is associated with being “good,” leading to social desirability bias.

Answer 284

Stark and Hamilton argued that religion has never been as important as often portrayed. They claim the perception of faith in the Middle Ages is false, as people were generally indifferent to religion and often disliked religious authorities. They suggest that this means society is not becoming secular because religion was never truly that important in the first place.

Answer 285

Woodhead and Davie argue that New Age religions (NARs) are evidence against secularisation because: • NARs appeal more to young people. • People might belong to multiple NARs, making them difficult to measure. • NARs focus on private spiritual growth, so they can’t be recorded like traditional religions. • People may not recognise practices like astrology or tarot reading as religious.

Answer 286

Voas disagrees with Woodhead and Davie, arguing that these beliefs aren’t genuine religious beliefs. He sees them as too casual and believes they don’t have the societal influence that traditional religions do.

Answer 287

Bruce argues capitalism causes secularisation through: 1. Urbanisation: People living in close conditions undermined the clergy’s social control. 2. Social differentiation: State agencies took over roles that religion once played, like charities and education. 3. Impersonal bureaucratic rules: People now believe in meritocracy, not divine order. Bruce called this societalisation, where the state, not religion, takes responsibility for life.

Answer 288

A criticism of Bruce’s argument is that rural communities have higher levels of religious belief, suggesting that urbanisation and societalisation may not fully explain secularisation.

Answer 289

Wilson argues that the mass media has taken over the role of religion in society, providing social cohesion and shaping public opinion, which may contribute to secularisation.

Answer 290

Hevieu-Leger argues that postmodernism has led to a rejection of the overarching values that religion imposes, causing cultural amnesia, where each generation knows less about religion and struggles to pass it on.

Answer 291

Parsons argues that religion being freed from other societal roles makes it more effective as a moral compass. He believes religion creates a moral company, helping people deal with evil and suffering

Answer 292

Woodhead argues that religion is still important, noting that: • There are 7,000 state-funded religious schools. • Religions have charitable status. • Religious codes underpin the British legal system.

Answer 293

• Less forced unity in rural areas leads to greater reliance on religion for social cohesion. • Poverty and insecurity in rural areas make religion provide existential security, offering comfort against death (Norris and Inglehart). • Less religious pluralism in rural areas helps maintain the belief in one religious truth.

Answer 294

Religious fundamentalism refers to a movement that seeks to return to a religion’s most traditional values and beliefs. It is characterised by a militant approach, literal interpretations of sacred texts, and a strict reliance on those texts.

Answer 295

Globalisation, which makes societies more interconnected economically, culturally, and politically, impacts religion in several ways: • Increased migration: Leads to cultural defence and cultural transition, such as the rise of Pentecostalism in the UK (Bruce). • Increased use of technology: Facilitates the promotion of both secular and religious ideologies. • Spread of liberal Western values: Often triggers fundamentalist responses as a reaction to perceived threats to traditional beliefs.

Answer 296

1. Undermining Religion: Globalisation leads to religious pluralism, weakening the authority of any one religion and reducing its value as a sacred canopy. 2. Social Differentiation: Economic growth and diversification in society result in social differentiation, weakening religion’s role and leading people to focus more on modern, economic concerns.

Answer 297

Berger’s sacred canopy refers to the idea that religion provides a protective, overarching framework that gives meaning and structure to society. It offers a sense of security, coherence, and shared belief, helping individuals make sense of their lives and the world around them.

Answer 298

• Authoritative sacred text: Belief in a literal, unquestionable text with all the answers. • ‘Us and them’ mentality: Separation from and refusal to compromise with the world. • Aggressive reaction: Using aggression to highlight beliefs. • Modern technology: Opposition to modern culture but use of technology for goals. • Patriarchy: Fixed control over women’s roles by divine decree. • Prophecy: Relevance of biblical prophecies to modern events. • Conspiracy theory: Attraction to theories about global domination plots.

Answer 299

Cosmopolitanism is a way of thinking that welcomes different cultures and ideas. It fits with today’s world where everything is becoming more connected and global.

Answer 300

Cosmopolitan religions focus on finding personal meaning and improving yourself, rather than just following strict rules. This is similar to what Hervieu-Leger calls “pilgrims,” who search for their own spiritual path, like those involved in New Age beliefs

Answer 301

Bauman says that in a postmodern society, there’s more freedom and uncertainty, making people unsure about how to live. This confuses some people, and while some enjoy the new freedom, others turn to fundamentalism because it gives them a clear, unchanging truth and certainty.

Answer 302

A) Resistance identity: This is when people feel threatened by change and go back to more traditional ways, joining groups with strict beliefs to feel safe. B) Project identity: This is the response of people who look to the future, joining social movements like feminism or environmentalism to try to make the world better.

Answer 303

A) They don’t consider hybrid movements, which mix both cosmopolitanism and fundamentalism. B) They focus too much on fundamentalism and ignore how globalisation is changing other religions that aren’t fundamentalist. C) Giddens treats all types of fundamentalism the same, not noticing the important differences between them. D) Giddens says fundamentalism is a reaction against modern changes, but it also involves changing traditions, which is part of the modern world itself.

Answer 304

Fundamentalism is when people follow their religion very strictly, believing that every word in their religious text is completely true and should be followed exactly. They often see the world in black and white terms and reject modern ideas that don’t fit with their beliefs. They may also want to control society based on these beliefs.

Answer 305

1. Pessimistic: Focuses only on negative aspects of religion, ignoring benefits like charity. Marxists argue these benefits are outweighed by religion’s role in inequality. 2. Secularisation: Capitalist values remain strong despite religion’s decline. Marxists say religion’s decline doesn’t change its role in supporting capitalism. 3. Narrow Focus: Ignores religion’s emotional support role. Marxists argue these benefits help prevent people from challenging oppression. 4. Feminism: Doesn’t address gender inequality. Marxists argue class oppression includes gender issues. 5. Religion and Communism: Marx said religion would disappear, but places like China are growing more religious. This challenges Marx’s prediction but questions religion’s role in communism.

Answer 306

Religion is conservative because it upholds traditional beliefs and maintains social stability by preserving the status quo.

Answer 307

Functionalists see religion as a conservative force that maintains social stability by promoting value consensus and preventing social collaps

Answer 308

Marxists see religion as an ideology that legitimates exploitation, creates false consciousness, and prevents revolution, thus maintaining capitalism.

Answer 309

Feminists argue that religion legitimates patriarchal power and maintains women’s subordination in the family and society.

Answer 310

Calvinist beliefs, such as predestination and asceticism, encouraged hard work, wealth accumulation, and reinvestment, fostering the “spirit of capitalism.”

Answer 311

The belief that God has already determined who will be saved (‘the elect’) and who will not, and nothing can change this decision.

Answer 312

They saw wealth and success as signs of God’s favor, helping them cope with their “salvation panic.”

Answer 313

Weber argued that Hinduism was too other-worldly and Confucianism was not ascetic, so neither encouraged systematic wealth accumulation like Calvinism.

Answer 314

Kautsky argued that Weber overemphasized religious ideas and that capitalism actually preceded Calvinism.

Answer 315

Religion provides beliefs and practices that activists can use to support protests and push for social change.

Answer 316

Religious movements that predict a radical transformation of society, often appealing to the poor and oppressed.

Answer 317

Hegemony is the ruling class’s ideological control over society, often maintained through religion, but religion can also be used to resist it.

Answer 318

Through counter-hegemony, where religion helps people develop an alternative vision of society, led by “organic intellectuals” like activist clergy.

Answer 319

1971: 60%, 2012: 30%

Answer 320

Their identification/membership with a religion

Answer 321

It will fold around 2030

Answer 322

The process by which rational ways of thinking and acting replace religious ones

Answer 323

The Protestant Reformation begins the disenchantment of the world, squeezing out magical and religious ways of thinking

Answer 324

It largely replaces religious or supernatural explanations of why things happen

Answer 325

A process of specialisation that occurs with the development of industrial society

Answer 326

The transfer of religion's functions, becoming disconnected from wider society

Answer 327

Religion is separated from society and lost its functions

Answer 328

Pre-industrial communities allowed shared values, now lost due to the decline in religion

Answer 329

Industrialisation undermines the consensus of religious beliefs

Answer 330

The trend towards religious diversity

Answer 331

A once-unifying set of beliefs that is no longer present due to plurality of life worlds

Answer 332

A crisis of credibility for religion due to diversity undermining its plausibility

Answer 333

Where religion provides a focal point for the defence of group identity against an external force

Answer 334

Where religion provides support and sense of community for ethnic groups

Answer 335

It is seen as an expression of the 'American way of life'

Answer 336

Declining church attendance, secularisation from within, and a trend towards religious diversity and relativism

Answer 337

Religion in the US has become psychologised and turned into a form of therapy

Answer 338

A trend towards practical relativism

Answer 339

The erosion of absolutism

Answer 340

religious diversity and relativism