Paper 3 - Crime And Deviance Flashcards
what is social control
methods used to persuade individuals to conform to the dominant norms of society
define the difference between deviance and crime
deviance = rule breaking behaviour that fails to conform to social norms
crime = law breaking behaviour that contravenes the criminal law of a society
what do sociologists argue about crime and deviance?
that it is socially constructed
eg. homosexuality, drinking, smoking
outline 3 functions that crime and deviance may perform
one function is that deviance can lead to social change. for example, new ideas and behaviours initially appear deviant but may cause social norms to change. eg. homosexuality
A second function is it can cause boundary maintenance. the social reaction to crime and deviance by media and courts reaffirms society’s shared values.
A third function is it acts as a warning. a high level of deviance indicates an institution is not functioning properly and needs to reform. this is identified by Cohen.
What is the difference between societal and situational deviance?
What theorist is linked?
- Societal deviance refers to actions that are widely disapproved of by most members of society, such as murder or rape.
- Situational deviance refers to actions that are only considered deviant depending on the context, such as killing in self-defense or wartime versus in a civilian setting.
By Plummer
How does time influence the definition of deviance?
The definition of deviance changes over time as social norms evolve. For example, smoking in public was once widely acceptable but is now increasingly seen as deviant behavior in many societies. Similarly, attitudes toward issues like homosexuality have changed significantly over the years.
How does the concept of deviance vary by society or culture?
Deviance is culturally relative; what is considered deviant in one society may not be viewed the same way in another. For instance, alcohol consumption is legal and socially acceptable in many Western societies, while it is prohibited and seen as deviant in some Islamic cultures.
What role does social group membership play in the perception of deviance?
What may be considered acceptable within a specific social group may be viewed as deviant by the wider society. For example, smoking cannabis may be widely accepted among young people, but is still seen as deviant by many adults and is illegal in certain contexts.
What is Newburn’s (2007) view on the social construction of crime?
Newburn (2007) argues that crime is a label attached to certain forms of behavior that are prohibited by the state and have legal penalties. However, there is no inherent act that is always criminal; it becomes a crime when a particular label of “crime” is applied to it by the legal system. Social attitudes and laws around what is considered criminal can change over time.
How does the interpretation of similar acts vary in different contexts according to Newburn?
Even similar acts can be treated very differently depending on the interpretations of law enforcement and the context in which they occur. For example, killing someone in a knife fight in a pub might be considered criminal, but killing in a knife fight during wartime would not be seen the same way.
How does Downes and Rock (2007) describe the ambiguity of deviance?
Downes and Rock (2007) suggest that ambiguity is a key feature of deviance because people are often unsure whether a particular act is truly deviant. Judgements about deviance depend on factors such as who is involved, the context of the act, and societal norms.
How do societal expectations influence whether an act is seen as deviant?
What is defined as deviant is influenced by social expectations about what constitutes “normal” behavior. For example, swearing at a peer in a casual setting may not be considered deviant, but swearing at a teacher in school is likely to be viewed very differently.
What is utilitarian crime
Utilitarian Crime. Crime committed for material gain, e.g. theft and fraud.
What is non utilitarian crime
non-utilitarian crime (crime without monetary gain e.g. vandalism
What does Merton aim to explain through his strain theory?
Merton aims to explain why deviance occurs in society. He focuses on how certain aspects of society can be dysfunctional and how the strain between socially accepted goals and the means to achieve them can lead to deviant behavior.
How does Merton build on Durkheim’s concept of anomie?
Merton builds on Durkheim’s concept of anomie by suggesting that it is caused by the strain between the cultural goals that society sets (such as wealth and success) and the socially approved means of achieving these goals. This mismatch leads to feelings of anomie or normlessness, particularly when individuals feel unable to achieve these goals through legitimate means.
What is the key concept that Merton’s Strain Theory focuses on?
The key concept is the “strain” that occurs when there is a discrepancy between the cultural goals that society emphasizes (e.g., financial success) and the institutionalized means available to achieve those goals (e.g., education, hard work).
What are the two consensus views that Merton highlights in his strain theory?
Merton highlights the consensus on what people should aim for in life (goals) and how they should achieve these goals (means). Deviance occurs when individuals experience strain between these two elements.
How does rapid social change contribute to anomie according to Merton?
According to Merton, rapid social change disrupts the social solidarity and cohesion in society, leading to a state of anomie. This occurs because individuals can no longer rely on the established norms or means to achieve socially accepted goals, which creates confusion and increases deviant behavior.
What does Merton mean by
“anomie”?
Merton uses the term “anomie” to describe a situation where there is a breakdown of social norms and values, particularly when there is a disconnection between cultural goals and the means to achieve them. This state of normlessness can lead to deviant behavior as individuals seek alternative ways to achieve their goals.
What is the relationship between social goals and means in Merton’s
Strain Theory?
In Merton’s Strain Theory, social goals are the culturally defined objectives that society expects individuals to pursue (e.g., wealth, success), while means are the legitimate ways society provides for achieving these goals (e.g., education, employment). Deviance arises when there is a strain or gap between the goals and the means.
Give two strengths to merton’s strain theory
Any of the following:
- Begins to explain the patterns we see
- Patterns shown in official crime statistics
- Both normal and deviant behaviour can arise from the same mainstream goals
Give two weaknesses to merton’s strain theory
Any of the following:
- Takes official crime statistics at face value, over representing working class crime
- to deterministic - we don’t all deviate
- Marxist argue it ignores the power of ruling class to make and enforce laws in ways that criminalised poor - not rich
How do Cohen, Cloward, and Ohlin’s subcultural theories build on Merton’s work?
Cohen, Cloward, and Ohlin build on Merton’s work by focusing on how different groups, particularly working-class youth, respond to the strain they face in achieving societal goals. Unlike Merton, who focused more on individual responses, they examine how entire groups form subcultures to adapt to this strain.
What is the main demographic that Cohen, Cloward, and Ohlin focus on in their subcultural theories?
They focus on working-class juvenile delinquents, as this demographic makes up the largest group of criminals and deviants. Their theories explore why these youth are more likely to engage in deviant behavior.
How do subcultures form according to Cohen’s theory?
According to Cohen, subcultures form when working-class boys experience status frustration due to their inability to achieve middle-class success through legitimate means (like education). As a result, they reject mainstream values and form subcultures with alternative values, where they gain status through deviant behaviors.
What do Cloward and Ohlin argue about access to illegitimate opportunities?
Cloward and Ohlin argue that just as not everyone has equal access to legitimate means to achieve success, not everyone has equal access to illegitimate opportunities. They suggest that different environments provide different opportunities for deviance, leading to the formation of different types of delinquent subcultures.
What are the three types of subcultures that Cloward and Ohlin identify?
Cloward and Ohlin identify three types of subcultures based on the opportunities available:
• Criminal Subcultures: Found in areas with established criminal networks where youths can learn criminal skills.
• Conflict Subcultures: Found in disorganized areas with little social cohesion, where deviance arises from frustration and violent behavior.
• Retreatist Subcultures: Comprised of individuals who fail to succeed in both the legitimate and illegitimate worlds, often turning to drug use.
How does Cohen’s view of delinquency differ from Merton’s?
While Merton focuses on individual responses to strain, Cohen emphasizes the collective response of working-class boys who form delinquent subcultures. Cohen argues that deviant behavior stems from status frustration and a rejection of middle-class values, while Merton’s theory revolves around the strain between goals and means.
What is status frustration, and how does it relate to deviant subcultures according to Cohen?
Status frustration occurs when working-class boys cannot achieve success through the educational system and other legitimate means, leading to frustration. To overcome this, they form deviant subcultures where they can gain status by opposing mainstream norms.
What does Cohen agree with Merton about?
Like Merton, Cohen assumes that working-class boys start off sharing middle-class success goals, only to reject these when they fail. He ignores the possibility that they didn’t share these goals in the first place and so never saw themselves as failures.
Cohen also agrees with Merton that deviance is largely a lower class phenomenon
What does miller disagree with Merton and Cohen about?
He argued that it’s false to suggest that working class delinquents reject mainstream values after experiencing anomie; instead working class males have always had its own independent subculture.
What does Miller suggest?
Miller suggested that working class boys were socialised into a number of distinct values that together they were more likely than others to engage in delinquent or deviant behaviour. Miller described these values as ‘ focal concerns’
What are Miller’s focal concerns with explanations for each?
FEASTT:
- Fate
They believe that their future is already decided; what they do won’t influence it - Excitement
They seek out excitement (particularly when not at work) - autonomy
They wish to be independent and not reliant on others - smartness
They use wit (which might include smart remarks) - toughness
They wish to prove that they are tough and hard - Trouble
Link to excitement and toughness, they might well find themselves in trouble
What are some evaluations to Miller’s argument
- Miller just talks about boys without really considering gender. Some feminist critics have pointed out that these focal concerns might be masculine values rather than lower class ones
- It is not clear that what Miller refers to as the lower class really does have such distinct norms and values from the rest of society
What does Matza argue
- He suggests that we all share the delinquent values that lead some people to criminal and deviant behaviour but that most of us, most of the time, are able to keep them suppressed.
This is a learning skill, so we are more likely to commit crime when we are young. - People are neither conformist or deviant, instead, people are able to drift between both throughout their life
- Matza suggest that the proof for existence of these subterranean values comes from the fact that people seek to neutralise their deviant acts. Therefore, they must understand and share those values. He suggests that people use a number of techniques of neutralisation
What are Matza’s techniques of neutralisation?
CLIRV
- Denial of responsibility
“ it wasn’t me” “ it wasn’t my fault” - Denial of injury
“ it didn’t hurt” “ they have insurance” - Denial of the victim
“ you deserved it” “ what did you expect?” - Condemnation of the condemners
“ you’re just as bad” “ you’re only blaming me because” - Appeal to higher loyalties
“ I had to help my friends/family”
“ I did it for my country/race/religion”
What are some evaluations of Matza?
- these techniques of neutralisation have the appearance of excuses; they could simply be used in an attempt to avoid punishment, rather than to drift back into mainstream values
- Matza is correct that many people may be delinquents when they are young and then go onto lead respectable lives as adults. The ability to conform to mainstream values when they mature and take on responsibilities shows that they were as socialised into the value consensus as those who did not participate in deviant behaviour in their youth.
What does functionalism see society as?
Based on a value consensus.
It sees members of society as sharing a common culture, sharing the same culture produces social solidarity.
Functionalists argue that in order to achieve solidarity, a society must have two key mechanisms – what are they?
- socialisation; instill the shared culture into its members helping to ensure that individuals internalise the same norms and values
- Social control; mechanism include rewards for conformity and punishments for deviance
What do functionalist argue about crime?
Functionalist see too much crime as the destabilising society, they also see crime as inevitable and universal.
Known society has some level of crime and deviance.
For Durkheim ‘ crime is normal… an integral part of all healthy societies’
What are the two reasons why crime and deviance are found in all societies? (Functionalists)
- Not everyone is equally effectively socialised into the shared norms and values, so some individuals will be prone to deviate
- Particularly in complex modern societies, there is a diversity of lifestyle and values. Different groups develop their own subcultures with distinctive norms and values, and what the members of the subculture regard as normal, mainstream culture may see as deviant.
What is anomie
Normalness/normality
What does Durkheim believe about modern societies?
In his view, modern society tend towards anomie - the rules governing behaviour become weaker. This is because modern societies have complex specialised division of lab. This leads individuals becoming increasingly different from one another, weakening the shared culture and resulting in higher levels of deviance.
What does Durkheim say about crime?
Crime is inevitable and also fulfilled two important positive functions
Durkheim believes crimes fulfils what two important positive functions?
- Boundary maintenance.
Durkheim says when people commit crime, they are punished by the criminal justice system. This reminds other citizens of the value consensus which therefore strengthens its effectiveness. - Adaptation and change.
Durkheim argues this is when society needs to adapt and change as a result of crime. All change starts with deviance or in extreme cases, criminal activity. Individuals must be able to think differently if society wants to evolve further.
For Merton, deviance is the result of a strain between what two things?
- The goals that a culture encourages individuals to achieve.
- What the institutional structure of society allows them to achieve legitimately
What are the five different types of adaptation to the strain to anomie
ICRRR
‘I see (3) R’
- Conformity.
Individuals accept the culturally approved goals and strive to achieve them legitimately - Innovation.
Individuals accept the goal of money, but using you means like theft to achieve it - Ritualism.
Individuals give up trying to achieve the goals, internalised the legitimate means and so they follow the rules for their own sake - Retreatism
Individuals reject both goals and legitimate means and become dropouts - Rebellion.
Individuals reject their existing societies goals and means, but they replace them with new ones in a desire to bring about revolutionary change and create a new kind of society
In what ways do labelling theorists take a different approach within crime and deviance?
- instead of seeking the causes of criminal behaviour, they ask how and why some people and actions come to be labelled as criminal or deviant, and what affects this has on those labelled
- accepting official statistics as a valid picture of crime – they regard them not as hard facts, but a social constructs
For labelling theory, what makes an act deviant/criminal?
- argue no act is criminal or deviant in itself. It only comes to be so when others label it as such.
- It is not the nature of the act that makes it deviant, but the nature of societies reaction to the act
For Becker, what is a deviant?
A deviant is someone to whom the label has been successfully applied, and deviant behaviour is simply behaviour that people so label
What is Becker’s concept of a moral entrepreneur?
Include the effects
These are people who lead a moral crusade to change the law. Beck argues that this law invariably has 2 effects:
- The creation of a new group of outsiders – outlaws or deviants who break the new rule
- The creation or expansion of social control agency, e.g. police, to enforce the rule and impose labels on offenders
What do recent strain theories argue
Recent strain theorists have argued that young people may pursue a variety of goals other than money success. These include popularity with peers, autonomy from adults, or the desire of some young males to be treated like ‘real men’.
Like earlier strain theorists, they argue that fallure to achieve these goals may result in delinquency. They also argue that middle-class juveniles too may have problems achieving such goals, thus offering an explanation for middle-class delinquency.
What does Cicourel argue?
Cicourel argued that justice is negotiable and not fixed. He found that law enforcement and other social control agents make decisions based on stereotypes, or “typifications,” about what a typical delinquent looks like. This leads to class bias, with working-class individuals more likely to be arrested and prosecuted, while middle-class individuals often receive more lenient treatment due to their background and their parents’ ability to negotiate on their behalf.
What did Cicourel mean by
“typifications” in the context of law enforcement?
Cicourel used the term “typifications” to refer to the stereotypes or commonsense theories that police officers held about what a “typical delinquent” looks like. These typifications influenced the way officers perceived suspects and their decision-making process when it came to arrests.
How did police typifications lead to class bias in arrests? (Cicourel)
Police typifications led to class bias because working-class people and areas fit the police’s stereotype of a typical delinquent. As a result, law enforcement officers patrolled these areas more intensively, leading to higher arrest rates among working-class individuals, which in turn reinforced the officers’ stereotypes.
How did Cicourel argue that justice is “negotiable”?
Cicourel argued that justice is negotiable because not all individuals are treated equally within the criminal justice system. For example, middle-class youths were less likely to be charged when arrested, as their background did not match the police’s idea of a typical delinquent. Furthermore, their parents were often able to negotiate with control agencies, ensuring that their child was treated more leniently, often being “counselled, warned, and released” rather than prosecuted.
Why were middle-class youths less likely to be prosecuted, according to Cicourel?
Middle-class youths were less likely to be prosecuted because their background did not fit the police’s stereotype of a delinquent. Additionally, their parents were more likely to successfully negotiate on their behalf, convincing law enforcement and probation officers that the youth was sorry for their actions, would be monitored at home, and would stay out of trouble in the future.
What is primary deviance according to Edwin Lemert?
Primary deviance refers to acts that have not been publicly labelled as deviant and do not significantly affect an individual’s identity or self-concept.
What is secondary deviance according to Edwin Lemert?
Secondary deviance occurs after an individual has been publicly labelled as deviant, leading them to internalize the label and adopt a deviant identity.
What effect does labelling have on an individual’s self-concept?
Labelling can lead to a crisis in an individual’s self-concept, where they start to see themselves as deviant, and it may force them to accept the label as part of their identity, leading to more deviant behavior.
How does secondary deviance reinforce deviant behavior?
Secondary deviance reinforces deviant behavior by isolating the individual from mainstream society, which pushes them toward deviant subcultures where their deviant identity is validated and supported.
What is a deviant career?
A deviant career is the process through which an individual continues to engage in deviant behavior after being labelled and ostracized by society, often finding support in deviant subcultures.
What does Jock Young’s study on the hippies show about the effects of labelling?
Jock Young’s study shows that labelling can push individuals into deviant subcultures. For the hippies, drug use became central to their lifestyle after police labelled them as outsiders, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy of deviance.
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy in the context of deviance?
A self-fulfilling prophecy in deviance is when individuals internalize the labels placed on them, causing them to act in ways that conform to those labels, thereby confirming society’s stereotypes.
What is the deviance amplification spiral?
The deviance amplification spiral is a process where attempts to control deviance, like labelling or policing, actually lead to an increase in deviant behavior, further reinforcing the original label.
How does Stanley Cohen’s concept of ‘moral panics’ relate to the deviance amplification spiral?
Stanley Cohen’s concept of
‘moral panics’ describes how media and societal reactions to deviant groups, such as the ‘mods and rockers’, amplify the perceived threat, leading to increased policing and public fear, which further escalates deviant behavior.
What is the impact of labelling on the criminal justice system?
Labelling can lead to biased practices within the criminal justice system, where individuals from certain social backgrounds (e.g., working-class or minority groups) are more likely to be labelled as deviant and treated more harshly.
What did Aaron Cicourel argue about the negotiation of justice?
Aaron Cicourel argued that justice is negotiable, and that middle-class individuals are less likely to be labelled as deviant because they do not fit the stereotypes held by law enforcement, and their parents can negotiate better outcomes for them.
What role do stereotypes play in labelling according to Cicourel?
Stereotypes shape the way law enforcement and other social control agents view individuals, leading them to focus on certain ‘types’ (often working-class or minority individuals), reinforcing class bias in the criminal justice system.
How can the labelling theory explain the over-representation of working-class individuals in crime statistics?
Labelling theory explains this over-representation by pointing out that working-class individuals are more likely to be policed and labelled as deviant, which results in higher rates of arrests and convictions, reinforcing societal stereotypes.
What is the concept of a ‘master status’ in labelling theory?
A master status is the dominant label or identity that overrides all other aspects of a person’s self-concept. Once labelled as a deviant, this label can become their master status, affecting how others perceive and interact with them.
What did Goffman argue about the effects of being labelled as mentally ill?
Goffman argued that being labelled as mentally ill can become an individual’s master status, meaning everything they say or do is interpreted in the light of this label, often leading to them being stigmatized.
How does institutionalisation reinforce deviant behavior?
Institutionalisation, such as being admitted to a psychiatric hospital or prison, can reinforce deviant behavior by isolating individuals from society, eroding their identity, and making it difficult for them to reintegrate after release.
What did Rosenhan’s ‘pseudo-patient’ experiment demonstrate about labelling?
Rosenhan’s experiment showed that once someone is labelled as mentally ill, their normal behavior is often interpreted as symptomatic of their illness, demonstrating how powerful and stigmatizing labels can be.
How does labelling theory critique official crime statistics?
Labelling theory critiques official crime statistics by arguing that they are not an accurate reflection of actual crime rates, but rather a record of the actions of law enforcement, which tend to focus on certain groups.
What are some criticisms of labelling theory?
Labelling theory is criticized for being too deterministic, suggesting that once labelled, deviance is inevitable. It also ignores the role of power in who applies labels and fails to explain primary deviance (deviant acts before being labelled).
How does labelling theory explain the persistence of deviance in society?
Labelling theory explains that deviance persists because labels can create a self-fulfilling prophecy. Once labelled, individuals may be driven into deviant subcultures, where their deviant identity is reinforced and supported.
labelling an individual as deviant
What did Pillavin and Briar find?
They found that police decisions to arrest a youth were mainly based on physical cues (manner, dress) from which they made judgements about the youths character. Officers decisions were also influenced by suspects gender, class, ethnicity and time and place.
What do Marxists agree with functionalists about in regards to crime?
Marxists agree with functionalists that people’s criminality (or lack thereof) is moulded by social structures. However they regard this structure as based on conflict between class, with social inequality driving crime.
What is social deviance
refers to acts which are seen by most members of a society as deviant
