Paper One - Education, Research Methods, Sociological Theory Flashcards
What is instinct?
An innate, fixed, or preprogrammed pattern of behaviour shared by all members of a given species.
Give 3 examples of behaviour that varies between individuals and societies
- We all have a sex drive, but the way we satisfy can vary = from promiscuity, to monogamy, polygamy, or posing to remain celibate
- We may have a drive for self preservation yet some people choose to risk lives in war
- Women are said to have a maternal instinct; yet some abandon or abuse their children
This shows that humans do not purely act on instinct
What are 3 examples of learned behaviour
-language
-knowledge of right and wrong
-practical skills (eg. Dressing up, table manners)
Define norms
Norms refers to behaviour and attitudes which are considered normal, while values are those things that people consider important to them. They can also be Specific rules that govern behaviour in particular situations
Define sanctions
Sanctions are used to maintain social control by giving rewards or punishments, this ensures society’s members behave as others expect them to
What is socialisation
The process of ‘internalising’ the culture whereby society ‘gets into’ and becomes part of us
Aka. Learning all the things that are necessary for us to be accepted just to society
What is the difference between primary and secondary socialisation
Primary: takes place in early years of life and occurs largely within the family where we learn language, basic skills, and forms
Secondary: takes place later, at school and in a wider society
What is the difference between ascribed status and achieved status
Ascribed status: based on fixed characteristics that we are are born with and cannot normally change, such as sex or ethnicity
Achieved status: through own efforts such as getting into uni or being promoted at work
What is a sociological perspective
A way at looking at society from different angles
What is structuralism
-concerned with the overall structure of society and the way that social institutions like the media, work and act as a constraint on or limit and control individual behaviour.
-according to structuralism the individual is like a puppet whose strings are pulled by society
Define functionalism
theory based on the premise that all aspects of a society—institutions, roles, norms, etc. —serve a purpose and that all are essential for the long-term survival of the society
What are Marxists
Beliefs that capitalist society is based on inequalities between the running capitalist class and working class
What is social action
The idea that society is created by the actions of each individual - complete opposite to structuralism
People’s behaviours are viewed as being driven by the meaning they give to situations
The sociology of trying to uncover these meanings is typically called interpretivism (based on the assumption that reality is subjective, multiple and socially constructed)
Social action believes that society and its institutions are seen as the creation of individuals - not as an external reality
What is structuration (Anthony gibben’s theory)
While people operate within the constraints of the social structure, they can also act, make choices, and sometimes change that social structure
What is post-modernism?
- Emphasises the diversity of human experience and multiplicity of perspectives
- It stresses that society is changing so rapidly and constantly that is marked by chaos, uncertainty, and risk.
- For post-modernist, there is no single ‘true’ theory
- In postmodern societies, the emphasis is on individuals as consumers, making their own choices. Postmodernists believe that in contemporary global society people’s identities are chosen rather than ascribed (given). They assert that we can construct our own lives and identities through the same processes that are used when we go shopping. We can ‘pick and mix’ parts of our identities according to what we like and want.
What do postmodernists believe about the society and social structures (eg.family)?
Postmodernists argue it is no use to talk of an institution called family because people now live in such a wide range of ever-changing personal relationships.
Couples that are homosexual, heterosexual, etc., all mean that any notion of the ‘typical family’ or ‘family as an institution’ is absurd.
Post-modernists suggest society and social structures have ceased to exist and have been replaced by a mass of individuals, making individual choices about a lifestyles,etc. This means that societies can no longer be understood through the application of ‘big’ theories, or grand stories (called metanarratives) like Marxism or functionalism.
Define metanarratives
A postmodern theory, which refers to the big stories in which religions offer individuals about the world
Name the three types of society and explain them
Traditional: a rural agricultural society where there is little social change, a strong sense of community, and religion, typically dominates peoples view of the world
Eg. Carriage
Modern: an urban industrial society with social and technological change, along with a belief in science and progress
Eg. Car
Postmodern: a post industrial society, in which change is increasingly rapid, but uneven, marked out by individual choice about their lifestyles and identities, so metanarratives like science or religion, become fruitless
Eg. Uber
What is social stratification?
Societies categorisation of its people into groups and the relative social position of these groups within wider society
Eg. Class, age, gender, ethnicity (CAGE) are social groups that all have examples of inequality
What is meritocracy?
In a meritocracy, everyone has an equal opportunity to develop their talents and abilities, and achieve their ambitions
Meritocracy describes a society whereby jobs and pay are allocated based on an individual’s talent and achievements rather than social status. Functionalists Davis and Moore state that we live in a meritocratic society as the education system acts as a mechanism to ensure individuals do the right jobs (role allocation). Therefore, individuals that work hard will be rewarded in society, whilst those who do not will not be rewarded.
What is differential educational attainment/achievement? Include a research study.
This refers to the tendency for some groups to do better or worse than others educationally
A large scale statistical research was done by Webber and Butler (2007) involving more than 1 million peoples, found that the best predictor of achievement was the type of neighbourhood that pupils lived in
(Example question)
Outline two factors explaining class differences in educational achievement - 4marks
Structure:
-The bullet point question
-6 minutes to answer
-Two Paragraphs each holding one factor.
One factor is the external factor of parental/household income. For example, wealthy families are more likely to afford private education.
A second factor is the internal factor of teacher labelling. For example, teachers may not provide the right help for students due to their labelling.
Name a few comparisons of social class differences in educational achievement
Working class compared to middle class has been found that:
-they are more likely to start school, unable to read
-They are less likely to get places in the best state schools
-They are more likely to be placed in lower sets
-they are less likely to go into higher education
What is cultural deprivation?
The idea that young people fail in education, because of supposed cultural deficiencies in the home and family background, such as in adequate socialisation, failings in preschool learning, or inappropriate attitude, or values.
What are the three main aspects to cultural deprivation?
-language
-Parents attitudes to education
-Working class subcultures
Analyse and explain the aspect of language (in cultural deprivation)
-essential part of education affects children’s cognitive development
-Less educated parents tend to use language in ways that only require kids to make simple descriptive statements = lower performance
-Bernstein (1975) argue that that two main codes that people use when communicating. While everyone uses the restricted code in casual speech, the middle-class are able to switch into the elaborate code, with complex sentence structures, and vocabulary. This is the code used in education, by teachers and in textbooks and exam papers. As such, this gives middle-class pupils an advantage. Giving the idea that if you can’t elaborate code, you won’t succeed in the educational system.
Explain what Bernstein believes about the language codes in education
Bernstein recognises that the school -not just the home- influences children’s achievement. He argues that working class pupils fail, not because they are culturally deprived, but because schools failed to teach them how to use the elaborated code.
Name criticisms to the elaborate and restricted codes
- Rosen accuses Bernstein of creating a myth of the superiority of middle-class speech by describing working-class speech as in adequate
- Labov is critical of the notion that working class speech is inferior to that of the middle-class, and that, in many ways, the former are more effective at making their points where as middle-class speakers get bogged down in irrelevant detail.
Analyse and explain the aspect of parents’ educational attitudes and experiences (in cultural deprivation)
- Douglas (1964) nearly 60 years ago, found that the single most important factor, explaining educational success and failure was the degree of parental interest and encouragement.
- Better educated parents = higher
income = more money to spend to
promote their child’s educational success. Eg. Benstein found that middle-class mothers are more likely to buy toys, books, etc. - Educated parents also have a better understanding of nutrition
What do cultural deprivation theorists argue?
subculture = a group of attitudes and values differ from those of the mainstream culture
Cultural deprivation theorists argue that the lack of parental interest in their child’s education reflects the subcultural values of the working class
-Barry Sugarman (1970) that working-class subculture has four key features that act as a barrier to educational achievement. ( fatalism, collectivism, immediate gratification, present time orientation)
Barry Sugarman argues that working class subculture has four key features that act as a barrier to educational achievement -name an explain these four features
1. Fatalism.
A belief in fate, and that there’s nothing you can do to change your status .
This contrasts middle-class values
2. Collectivism.
Valuing being part of a group more than succeeding as an individual.
This contrast, the middle-class view than individual should not be held back by group loyalties
3. Immediate gratification.
Seeking pleasure now rather than making sacrifices in order to get rewards in the future. In contrast, middle-class values, emphasise making sacrifices now for bigger rewards later.
4. Present time orientation.
Seeing the present as more important than the future and so not having long-term goals or plans.
In contrast, middle-class culture has a future time orientation that sees planning the future as important
Explain the middle-class subculture and the effects it has on education
Subculture:
The promise of career progress through individual effort and educational achievement leads to a future orientation and deferred gratification. Individual effort and intelligence are the key to success.
Effects on education:
Children are socialised into values that encourage ambition and the recognition of the need for individual hard work – for example, doing homework, studying, staying in higher education.
Explain the working class subculture and the effects it has on education
Subculture:
Educational qualifications are often not very important to work. The lack of promotion opportunities lead to a present time orientation, immediate gratification and fatalism. Working together provides more gains than individual effort.
Effects on education:
Children are socialised into values which don’t prioritise ambition and educational effort. Fatalism and immediate gratification discourage effort for future rewards – meaning university and others are seen as less important than leaving school and getting a job. .
Why do subcultural values lead to under achievement?
Because children internalise the beliefs and values of their subculture, socialised into them by their parents, and reproduce them at school
What are three criticisms of cultural deprivation
- Criticised by Keddie as victim, blaming she points out that child cannot be deprived of its own culture and argues that working class Children are simply culturally different, not deprived.
- It may be wrong to view working class parents as uninterested in their children’s education. According to Blackstone and Mortimore they attend fewer parents evenings, not due to lack of interest but because they work longer. They may lack the knowledge of how to help.
- Thirdly, language.Troyna and williams argue that the problem is not the child language, but the schools attitude towards it. Teachers have a speech hierarchy.
What is material deprivation?
A lack of resources and a lack of ability to purchase goods and services, compared with other members of society
Direct effect on education: materials for school, private tuition, et cetera
Indirect effect on education: housing, diet, et cetera
Name the four material factors that may have an impact on educational achievement
- Housing
- Diet and health
- Cost of education.
- Fear of debt.
Define capital and the different types
Capital can be defined as any assets that can improve your life changes
Cultural capital = having the skills, knowledge, norms and values, which can be used to get ahead in education and life more generally
Social capital = possession of social contacts that can open doors
What was Pierre Bourdieu’s argument about cultural capital
Pierre Bourdieu ( a sociologist influenced by Marxist ideas) argued that it is not only money that gives wealthy, people power, but cultural assets to. He argued that the children of the middle-class or wealthy parents are likely to have knowledge, behaviour, attitudes, and cultural experiences that ensures that they succeeded in education and society.
he argues that the middle-class possess all three types of capital (economic, educational, cultural)
Who tested Bourdieu’s ideas? What did they do?
Alice Sullivan (2001)
-used questionnaires to conduct a survey of 465 peoples in 4 schools
-Asked about a range of activities to assess cultural capital
-Found that those who read, watched documentaries = wide vocab, and cultural knowledge = greater cultural capital
-Found that where pupils had some level of cultural capital, middle-class were still better
What is streaming?
Streaming involves separating children into different ability groups/classes
Eg. Streaming = set 1 all subjects
Setting = set 1 maths, set 3 PE etc.
What is likely to occur when children are streamed
The self fulfilling prophecy
This is because, it’s difficult to move up, and children are locked into their teachers, high/low expectations of them – creating a self fulfilling prophecy where pupils live up to the expectations
Middle-class, pupils tend to benefit from streaming and have high expectations
Explain the Stephen Ball “beachside comprehensive” - streaming leads to downwards mobility study (1981)
- About how top stream students were warmed up to achieve in academics, where lower stream were called out into lower status courses
- Study is done to see why working class pupils underperformed at school
- ball focused on two groups of students; one who were streamed by ability, another mixability. Teachers were concerned that in mixability weaker students were left behind and smarter would be held back. Overall middle-class, pupils were focused on – having a negative impact on working class.
- he found that pupils who started school with similar attitudes to study, began to diverge when streamed
- working class gravitated to lower streams and disinterested in school and less qualifications
Explain the educational triage
Educational triage = the rationing of educational opportunity
Gilborn and Youdell call an ‘A-to-c economy’ in school. Where schools focused their time on pupils seen as having potential. They call this process. Educational triage. Triage = sorting. This term is usually used by medical staff to sort casualties with potential.
The authors argue that the A-to-C economy, produces educational triage. This produces a self fulfilling prophecy and failure – due to teachers stereotypical view.
Define differentiation (in relation to education)
The process of teachers categorising pupils, according to how they perceive their ability/behaviour
Define polarisation (in relation to education)
The process in which pupils respond to streaming by moving towards one of two opposite poles : pro school subculture or anti-school subculture
What is the difference between pro school subculture and anti-school subculture?
Pro school subculture:
Pupils placed in high streams tend to remain committed to values of the school. Their values are those of the school – forming a pro school subculture.
Anti-school subculture:
Those placed in low streams suffer loss of self-esteem: school has undermined their self-worth. Pupils form anti-school subculture, as means of gaining status for example, jokes, and smoking.
What are the theorists linked with material deprivation
howard - poor homes = less energy/vitamins
Wilkinson - lower class = mental health problems
Callender and Jackson - working class is more debt averse
What are the theorists linked with language in cultural deprivation
Bernstein - speech codes = elaborated/restricted
Feinstein - educated parents use praise more
Bereiter and Engelman - language in lower class homes is deficient
What are the theorists/studies linked with parental attitudes in cultural deprivation
Douglas - more educated parents = more time and money on children
What are the theorists/studies linked with working class subcultures in cultural deprivation
Sugarman - 4 features of subculture; fatalism, collectivism, immediate gratification, present time orientation
Middle class jobs are more secure
What are the theorists/studies linked with compensatory education
Headstart USA, Sesame Street tv programme, sure start UK
What are the theorists/studies linked with cultural capital
Bourdieu - middle class possess’ all 3 capital
What are the theorists/studies linked with labelling and the ideal pupil
Becker - middle class is more ideal pupil
Stephen Ball - teachers ‘predict’ children’s capability
Jorgenson - ideal pupil differs with schools
What are the theorists/studies linked with the self fulfilling prophecy
Rosenthal and Jacobson - California primary school, randomly chosen ‘spurters’ made significant progress
What are the theorists/studies linked with streaming
Douglas - children in lower stream at age 8 suffer decline in IQ by 11
Stephen Ball - working class are in lower streams more
What are the theorists/studies linked with Educational triage
Gilborn and Youdell - schools focus their time more on pupils seen to have more potential
what is a habitus
Peoples traits and behaviours
the ‘dispositions’ or learned, taken for granted ways of thinking, being and acting that are shared by a particular class. includes their tastes, outlook on life. a group habitus is formed as a response to its position in the class structure.
name 3 aspects of cultural deprivation (inadequate socialisation)
- intellectual and linguistic skills
- attitudes and values
- family structure and parental support
intellectual and linguistic skills are an aspect of cultural deprivation. analyse this aspect
- major cause of underachievement
- many children from low income black families lack intellectual stimulation and enriching experiences - leaves them poorly equipped for school.
- bereiter and engelmann consider the language spoken by low income black families to be inadequate for educational success
AO3
- BUT gilborn and mirza note that indian pupils do very well despite often not having english as their home language
- lawrence argues that black pupils underachieve due to racism not low self esteem.
external factors and ethnic differences in achievement
attitudes and values are an aspect of cultural deprivation being an external factor to ETHNIC differences in achievement. analyse this aspect
- lack of motivation seen as most major cause of failure of black children
- black children are socialised into a subculture that instils a fatalistic ‘live for today’ attitude that does not value education - leaves them unequipped for success.
AO3
- lawrence argues that black pupils underachieve due to racism not low self esteem.
family structure and parental support are an aspect of cultural deprivation. analyse this aspect
- failure to socialise children is a result of a dysfunctional family structure (cultural deprivation theorists argue)
- pryce sees family structure as contributing to underachievement of black caribbean pupils in britain. he argues asians - are higher achievers, due to being more resistant to racism.
AO3
- driver shows that black caribbean families are far from being dysfunctional, as it provides girls with a positive role model of strong women. arguing this is why black girls tend to be more successful than black boys.
what did Gillborn and Youdell find in relation to the statement that labelling theory and teacher stereotypes can lead to differences in outcomes by ethnicity
- found that teachers were quicker to discipline Black pupils than others for some behaviour
- teachers have ‘racialised expectations’ based on racial stereotypes
what did Bourne and Osler find in relation to the statement that labelling theory and teacher stereotypes can lead to differences in outcomes by ethnicity
- found that schools see Black boys as a threat
- Black boys are more likely to suffer from official (suspension) and unofficial exclusions (being ill)
what did Peter Foster find in relation to the statement that labelling theory and teacher stereotypes can lead to differences in outcomes by ethnicity
- Black pupils behaving badly/bad stereotypes = put in lower sets
- teachers racial stereotypes affect streaming
what did the educational triage find in relation to the statement that labelling theory and teacher stereotypes can lead to differences in outcomes by ethnicity
‘A-to-C economy’ forms negative opinions about Black pupils identity
what did mary fuller find in relation to the statement that labelling theory and teacher stereotypes can lead to differences in outcomes by ethnicity
study on rejecting neg. labels
study of Black girls rejecting labels and still succeeding whilst refusing to conform. they relied on their own efforts rather than accepting the teachers neg. stereotype of them.
what are the 3 main types of teacher racism according to Mirza
COLOUR-BLIND
believe all are equal but allow racism go unchallenged
LIBERAL CHAUVINISTS
believe Black pupils = culturally deprived + low expectations
OVERT RACISTS
believe Black pupils are inferior and actively discriminate against them.
What are the 4 responses to schooling according to Sewell?
REBELS
most visible and influential, small minority black, anti-school, dismissive of conformist black boys
CONFORMISTS
largest group, succeeded, pro-school
RETREATISTS
isolated individuals, despised by rebels, disconnected from both school and black subcultures
INNOVATORS
2nd largest group, pro education but anti-school, successful, didnt seek teachers approval, distanced from conformists, maintained credibility with rebels
what is institutional racism
a form of discrimination within organisations that unfairly disadvantages ethnic minorities through its structures, systems, and/or policies.
what is ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is measuring or judging one’s own culture against another culture and can lead to judging someone else’s culture negatively
a worldview in which other cultures are seen through the eyes of ones own culture, with a devaluing of the others.
what is individual racism
results from prejudiced views of individual teachers and others and is a persons own racial beliefs and actions
what is Troyna and Williams opinion on institutional racism
for Troyna and Williams we need to look at institutional racism not just individual racism. this is because despite attempts at multicultural education, many aspects of school life are ethnocentric
what is marketisation
it is used to refer to a trend in education policy from 1980’s where schools were encouraged to compete against each other and act more like private businesses rather than institutions under the control of the government
what is the critical race theory
this sees racism as an fixed feature of society. it involves not just the international actions of individuals but, more importantly, institutional racism.
What is locked-in equality. refer to Daria Roithmayr
critical race theorists such as Roithmayr see institutional racism as a ‘locked-in equality’. the scale of historical discrimination is so large that there no longer needs to be any conscious intent to discriminate - the inequality feeds on itself
what is the ethnocentric curriculum
this term describes an attitude or policy that gives priority to the culture and viewpoint of one particular ethnic group, while disregarding the others.
schools represent this as - for example, British schools may learn about the history of white British people. this could impact children of other ethnicity’s or race as they begin to feel excluded from the system. however, it will not always lead to underachievement because of this, as some students may reject the idea.
explain girls impact in education; include the history
girls have educationally outperformed boys in the early years of schooling since mass education was introduced. however, girls have not always had the same opportunities in higher education - before 1877 no British uni accepted female students.
Overall girls have achieved more than boys yearly and the gap between the two proceeded to increase as time went on.
feminism and women’s liberation is an external factor - how does it affect girls?
- it has challenged the traditional stereotype of women’s role in society
- improves women’s rights and opportunities through changes in law
- raised womens expectations and self esteem
overall affects girls self image and ambitions with regard to family and careers. in turn, this may explain improvements in their educational achievement
demographic changes in the family is an external factor - how does it affect girls?
affects girls attitude to education in a number of ways:
-more women need to take on a breadwinner role because of an increased number of female headed lone parent families
-^creates a new adult role model for girls – the financially independent woman
-encourages girls to look to themselves and their own qualifications to make a living due to increase in divorce rate suggesting it’s unwise to rely on a husband
changes in womens employment is an external factor - how does it affect girls?
Encourage girls to see their future in terms of paid work rather than as housewives. Greater career opportunities and better pay for woman, and the role models that successful career women offer, provide an incentive for girls to gain qualifications.
girls changing ambitions is an external factor - how does it affect girls?
Girls were more likely as creators of their own future and had an individualised notion of self. They believed in meritocracy (equal opportunity) and aimed for a professional career that would enable them to support themselves.
Equal opportunities policy is an internal factor - how does it affect girls?
- policies such as GIST and WISE encourage girls to pursue careers in these non-traditional areas.
- Bowler says that many of the barriers have been removed and schooling has become more meritocratic (equal) so girls, who generally work harder than boys, achieve more
Positive role models in schools is an internal factor - how does it affect girls?
Women in senior positions may act as role models for girls, showing them women can achieve positions of importance and giving them non-traditional goals to aim for.
Women teachers make the most significant impact
GCSE and coursework is an internal factor - how does it affect girls?
Some argue that changes in the way pupils are assessed have favoured girls and disadvantaged boys. Gorad found the gender gap was constant until it increased sharply - when GCSE’s was introduced. This is because girls are more conscientious and better organised (Mitsos and Browne) and have better language skills helps girls achieve greater success due to their socialisation and how they have been taught to act.
Teacher attention is an internal factor - how does it affect girls?
Boys are seen to have more attention because they attract more reprimands (French) also found they got disciplined more harshly than girls (Francis). Teachers respond more positively to girls - as they’re more cooperative. Leads to successful interactions with teachers - self fulfilling prophecy, promoting girls self esteem and raising achievement levels
Challenging stereotypes in the curriculum is an internal factor of the gender gap in achievement - how does it affect girls?
Sexist Images/stereotypes have been removed from learning materials. This helps raise girls achievement by presenting them with more positive images of what women can do.
Selection and league tables is an internal factor of the gender gap- how does it affect girls?
Schools see girls as desirable recruits because they achieve better exam results. So more girls get into good schools. Tending to create a self-fulfilling prophecy of this.
What do liberalist believe to be a problem in society? What is their solution to this?
PROBLEM:
Legal and social discrimination
SOLUTION:
Changes to laws, norms and socialisation
What do radicalists believe to be a problem in society? What is their solution to this?
PROBLEM:
- Patriarchy in all parts of society.
- men.
SOLUTION:
- revolution - remove patriarchy
What do socialists (Marxists) believe to be a problem in society? What is their solution to this?
PROBLEM:
Capitalist exploitation of women and men
SOLUTION:
Revolution - overthrow capitalism
What do post modernists/ post structuralists believe to be a problem in society? What is their solution to this?
PROBLEM:
- Capitalist exploitation of women and men
- not treating women as the same
SOLUTION:
Respect intersectionality (differences)
What is symbolic capital
Refers to the status, recognition and sense of worth that we are able to obtain from others.
Archer uses this concept to understand the conflict between WC girls feminine identities and the values and ethos of school.
What did Louise Archer say was one reason for social class differences in girls achievement
One reason is the conflict between WC girls feminine identities and the values and ethos of the school.
Archer found by performing their WC feminine identities, the girls gained symbolic capital from their peers. But this brought them in conflict with the school, preventing them from getting educational and economic capital.
What is the working class dilemma in education
They can either:
- gain symbolic capital from peers by conforming to a hyper-heterosexual feminine identity
- gain educational capital by rejecting their WC identity and confirming to the schools MC notions of an ideal pupil
What is the hyper heterosexual feminine identity
This identity brought status from their female peer group and avoid them being ridiculed.
It is adapting to a straight feminine identity to fit in. Many girls invested time and money to look like this.
What was found in;
Sarah Evans (2009) 21 w/ c girls in sixth form in a London comprehensive school
-She found that girls wanted to go to uni to increase their learning, but it wasn’t for themselves, it was to help their families
-This motivation reflected their w/c feminine identities
Reason why girls stay at home for uni
-Economic Necessity and fear of debt for many w/c students meant they would stay at home
-Even though it made uni more comfortable, it limited their choice of uni and the value market of their degree
-But living at home was a positive choice and an aspect of their w/c identity
Boys and achievement
How does literacy and language skills cause boy’s performance to lag?
Include a description of how the factor is formed
Description:
The gender gap is mainly the result of this. One reason for this may be that parents spend less time reading with their sons. Another may be mothers do most reading - and therefore it’s seen as feminine.
How it causes boys performance to lag:
- perform negatively in subjects
- aren’t as interested in reading so won’t pursue education with an as strong ambition of girls
- focus more on leisure
Boys and achievement
How does the decline of traditional men’s jobs cause boy’s performance to lag?
Include a description of how the factor is formed
Description:
Decline in heavy industries such as mining, due to globalisation of the economy - meaning more industries in China.
How it causes boys performance to lag:
Mitosis and Browne claim that the decline in male employment opportunities has led to and ‘identity crisis for men’
Many boys now believe they have less access or prospect of getting a proper job. Undermining their motivation and self esteem so they give up trying to get a qualification
