Socioemotional Development - Attachment, Emotions, & Social Relationships Flashcards
Attachment
Harlow & Zimmerman’s (1959) research with resus monkies concluded that what is an important contributor to an infant’s attachment to his/her caregivers
contact comfort
Attachment
what did Bowlby’s (1969) ethological theory propose about attachment between infants & their mothers
that infants & their mothers are biologically predisposed to form an attachment to help ensure the survival of the infant
Attachment
list the innate attachment-related behaviors of infants and the purpose of these behaviorsaccording to Bowlby’s (1969) ethological theory
- sucking, cruing, smiling, & cooing
- these behaviors elicit the mother’s attention & care and keep her in close proximity to the infant
Attachment
list the 4 stages of attachment according to Bowlby’s (1969) ethological theory
1) preattachment
2) attachment-in-the-making
3) clear-cut attachment
4) the formation of reciprocal relationships
Attachment
According to Bowlby, an infant’s attachment relationships during the 4 stages lead to the development of ____ ____ ____, which consists of…
- internal working models
- beliefs about the self, others, and the self in relationship to others and that affect future relationships
Attachment
list the signs of attachment at 6 to 8 months of age
- social referencing
- separation anxiety
- stranger anxiety
Attachment
separation anxiety begins at about 6 to 8 months, is most intense from ____ to ____ months, and thereafter gradually declines.
14 to 18 months
Attachment
stranger anxiety begins at about 8 to 10 months and begins to decline at about ____ of age
2 years of age
Attachment
Ainsworth et al. (1978) conducted the stange situation studies and identified 4 attachment patterns. List them.
1) secure attachment
2) insecure/resistant (ambivalent) attachment
3) insecure/avoidant attachment
4) disorganized/disoriented attachment
Attachment
characteristics of infants with secure attachment according to Ainsworth et al.’s (1978) strange situation study
- baby explores the room when mother is present
- may or may not cry when she leaves
- actively seeks contact with mother when she returns
- prefers mother to a stranger
mothers are sensitive & responsive
Attachment
characteristics of infants with insecure/resistant (ambivalent) attachment according to Ainsworth et al.’s (1978) strange situation study
- baby stays close to their mother initially
- is distressed when she leaves
- may be angry or resist her attempts at contact when she returns
- is fearful of a stranger even when their mother is present
mothers are inconsistent in their caregiving
Attachment
characteristics of infants with insecure/avoidant attachment according to Ainsworth et al.’s (1978) strange situation study
- baby seems indifferent toward mother
- exhibits little distress when she leaves
- avoids her when she returns
- reacts similarly to both their mother & a stranger
mothers are either rejecting or intrusive/overstimulating
Attachment
characteristics of infants with disorganized/disoriented attachment according to Ainsworth et al.’s (1978) strange situation study
- baby is fearful of mother
- often has a dazed/confused facial expression
- may or may not be distressed when she leaves
- exhibits disorganized/confused behavior when she returns and with a stranger
majority of these babies have been maltreated by their caregivers
Adult Attachment
research using the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) has found a relationship between the early attachment experiences of parents & the attachment patterns of their children. Adults who are classified as autonomous on the AAI described their childhood relationships with their parents how? And these adults usually have children with what type of attachment
- coherent descriptions of their childhood relationships w/ parents
- secure attachment
Adult Attachment
research using the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) has found a relationship between the early attachment experiences of parents & the attachment patterns of their children. Adults who are classified as preoccupied on the AAI described their childhood relationships with their parents how? And these adults usually have children with what type of attachment
- exhibited angry, confused, or passive preoccupation toward a parent
- resistant (ambivalent) attachment pattern
Adult Attachment
research using the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) has found a relationship between the early attachment experiences of parents & the attachment patterns of their children. Adults who are classified as dismissing on the AAI described their childhood relationships with their parents how? And these adults usually have children with what type of attachment
- positive descriptions of their childhood, but descriptions were not supported or were contradicted by actual memories
- avoidant attachment
Attachment, SES, & Culture
low-SES children are more likely than those from other SES backgrounds to exhibit which attachment pattern. There is evidence that this relationship is actually due to risk factors associated with low SES (rather than SES itself), such as…
insecure
* poor parental education
* parental drug use
* father absence
Attachment, SES, & Culture
research investigating adult attachment has found that the ____ (autonomous, preoccupied, or dismissing) attachment pattern is overrepresented among low-SES mothers, with the overrepresentation being greatest for low-SES adolescent mothers
dismissing
Attachment, SES, & Culture
research has shown that which attachment pattern is the most common pattern in both Western & non-Western cultures and that variations in attachment are related more to differences in what than cultural differences
secure; caregiving quality
Attachment, SES, & Culture
research has suggested that cultural differences appear to explain relative rates of insecure attachment classifications. IJzendoorn & Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis found that which attachment pattern was most common in the U.S., Germany, & other individualistic cultures, while which attachment pattern was most prevalent in Japan, Israel, & other collectivistic cultures.
insecure/avoidant; insecure/resistant (ambivalent)
Attachment
research on the effects of the separation of infants from their primary caregivers found that types and severity of the effects are related to what?
the infant’s age
Attachment
Schaffer & Callender (1959) found that separation from their mother caused little distress for infants ____ of age and younger
7 months of age and younger (these babies quickly adjusted to the hospital & hospital staff, accepted changes in routines, & acted similarly at home before & after hospitalization
Attachment
Schaffer & Callender (1959) found that separation from their mother caused a great deal of stranger anxiety and post-hospitalization disturbances when infants were older than ____ of age.
7 months
Attachment
what disturbances did infants older than 7 months of age exhibit at home post-hospitalization/separation from their mothers
- clung excessively to their mothers
- cried vigorously when separated form them
- sleep & appetite disturbances
Attachment
based on their research on the effects of the separation of infants from their primary caregivers, Schaffer & Callender (1959) concluded that the critical period, when separation from the mother is experienced as a traumatic event, does not commence until when?
after the middle of the first year of life
Emotions
research has found that children exhibit emotions in a predictable order with primary emotions emerging when? List primary emotions.
- birth to 18 months: contentment, interest, distress
- these expand at about 6 months to include: joy, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, & fear
Emotions
research has found that after primary emotions, children develop secondary (self-conscious) emotions when? List these emotions.
- 18 to 24 months: envy, empathy, & embarrassment
- these expand at 30 to 36 months to include: shame, guilt, & pride
Emotions
researchers have studied how facial emotion recognition develops during infancy using 2 paradigms. List * define these paradigms
1) looking-time paradigms: based on the assumption that increases or decreases in infants’ visual attention can be used to infer infants’ emotion abilities & knowledge
2) event-related-potential paradigms: provide information about infants’ neural responses to facial expressions of emotions
Emotions
at what age are infants able to categorize facial expressions of emotion, meaning they are able to recognize the similarity of an emotion expression (e.g., happiness) on the faces of multiple models even when there are differences in irrelevant characteristics such as the age or gender of the models or the intensity of their expressions
7 months of age
Emotions
at about 7 months of age, infants show a shift in the preferences for particular emotion expressions from happy facial expressions to ____ facial expressions. Why?
- fearful
- one explanation is the ‘fear bias’ - fearful expressions are unfamiliar to younger infants
Emotions
at what age do infants show understanding of the affective meaning of facial expressions?
10 to 18 months of age
Emotions
Reschke et al. (2017) used the violation-of-expectation paradigm (a type of looking-time paradigm) to assess the ability of 12-month-olds to match facial expressions when eliciting events. What were their findings?
that infants expected a person to express happiness (vs. anger) after receiving a toy and sadness or anger (vs. happiness) after fighting over a toy
Emotions
research has found that negative emotions (decrease/increase/remain stable) over time from the early 20’s to the mid-60’s, while positive emotions (increase/decrease/remain stable) during this period.
decrease; remain stable or increase
Emotions
research on emotions with older adults has been inconsistent, primarily due to the impact of what on emotions
health status
Emotions
what is the positivity effect associated with age-related changes in emotional memory
the tendency of older adults to prefer, attend to, and remember more positive information than younger adults do
Emotions
explain Socioemotional Selectivity Theory associated with age-related changes in emotional memory
- explains the positivity effect
- predicts that older adults tend to be motivated more than younger adults by emotional gratification and, therefore, are more likely to focus on and recall positive information more than negative information
Emotions
list 2 self-conscious emotions
shame & guilt
Emotions
Lickel et al.’s (2014) study investigating the role of shame and guilt on the motivation of young adults to change as a person found that which emotion was associated with a stronger motivation to change the self? Which emotion was more likely to induce the motivation to distance oneself from the event? Which emotion was more likely to induce the motivation to apologize for or otherwise repair the aftermath of the event?
shame; shame; guilt
Emotions
describe the function of instrumental aggression (aka proactive aggression)
to fulfill a need or desire (e.g., to get attention or obtain a desired object)
Emotions
describe the function of hostile aggression (aka reactive aggression)
- driven by anger & is done to hurt someone
Emotions
list the 3 forms of instrumental & hostile aggression
1) physical aggression
2) verbal aggression
3) relational aggression
Emotions
characteristics of physical aggression
- hitting
- kicking
- destroying another person’s property
Emotions
characteristics of verbal aggression
- threats of physical harm
- name-calling
Emotions
characteristics of relational aggression
damaging another person’s social relationships through:
* social exclusion or
* the spreading of malicious gossip
Emotions
age-related characteristics of physical instrumental aggression
- present by 1 year old
- peaks at 2 years old
- dominant form of aggression until 4 years old
Emotions
at what age do verbal & relational hostile aggression begin to become more common?
about 4 years old
Emotions
families of highly aggressive boys are characterized by what?
- escalating coercive interactions
- poor parental monitoring of children’s activities
Emotions
list the 3 assumptions of Patterson et al.’s (1992) Coercive Family Interaction Model
a) parents learn they can, at least temporarily, stop their children’s misbehavior with threats & physical punishment
b) children learn aggressive behaviors from their parents & that they can stop their parents’ behaviors by ignoring them or having a temper tantrum
c) aggressive parent-child interactions escalate over time
Emotions
Patterson et al. (1992) found that parents are mot likely to use coercive discipline when?
- the family is experiencing a high level of stress
- the child has a difficult temperament
- the parents have certain personality characteristics
Emotions
name of the training developed by Patterson et al. (1992) to help stop the coercive family cycle. What does this training involve?
- Parent Management Training - Oregon Model (PMTO)
- providing parents with therapy to help them deal better with stress
- teaching parents more effective parenting skills
Emotions
Crick & Dodge’s (1994) Social Information Processing Model
1. assumption(s)
2. 6 steps & descriptions of a person’s response to provocation
1) aggressive behavior in children is due to deficiencies and biases at each of 6 steps
2) steps:
a) encoding of cues: aggressive children tend to focus on aspects of provoker’s behavior that suggest a hostile intention & ignore other aspects
b) interpretation of cues: aggressive children have a hostile attribution bias that causes them to automatically assume that a provoker had a hostile intent in ambiguous social situations
c) clarification of goals: aggressive children identify retaliation as their goal
d) response search: aggressive children identify few options for responding, and most of them involve aggressive behavior
e) response decision: aggressive children choose an aggressive response because they believe it will have favorable outcomes
f) behavioral enactment: aggressive children act aggressively
Emotions
according to the APA Task Force on Media Violence (2015), the great the exposire to violent videogames, the higher the level lof aggressions and that the relationship between violent videogames and aggression remains when what risk factors for aggression are statistically controlled. Task Force also noted research with what populations is limited?
- antisocial personality traits
- parental conflict
- child and parent depression
- children under 10 years old, females, & members of ethnic minority groups
Emotions
what has been found as a useful intervention for aggression, improving parent-child interactions, and reducing children’s aggression & other externalizing behavior problems?
parent training
Emotions
research on the effectiveness of Parent Training with economically advantaged and disadvantaged families has found inconsistent results. Parent Training Programs found that disadvantaged families benefited less than advantaged families when? And that disadvantaged families had poorer outcomes than advantaged families at the 1 year follow-up regardless of what
- when the child’s initial symptoms were mild
- regardless of initial severirt of the child’s symptoms
Social Relationships
Parten (1932) classified the play of preschool children as nonsocial and social. Define each.
nonsocial: unoccupied play in which the child engages in aimless movements & activities, solitary play in which the child plays alone, & onlooker play in which the child watches other children play & talks to them but doesn’t participate
social: parallel play in wihch the child plays next to other children and shares toys but doesn’t interact with them, associative play in which the child interacts with other children but without shared goals, and cooperative play in which the child interacts with other children to achieve a common goal
Social Relationships
research has found that most children begin to prefer same-sex playmates between what ages? Gender segregation intensifies when? and remains stable until when?
- 2 and 3 years of age (with girls showing this preference earlier than boys)
- early & middle childhood
- adolescence
Social Relationships
Selman (1980) proposed that changes in friendships over time is associated to changes in what?
social perspective-taking
Social Relationships
according to Selman (1980), what are the 5 overlapping levels of changes in friendship/social perspective-taking?
1) Level 0 / Momentary Playmates (“I Want It My Way?”)
2) Level 1 / One-Way Assistance (“What’s In It For Me?”)
3) Level 2 / Two-Way, Fair Weather Cooperation (“By the Rules”)
4) Level 3 / Intimate, Mutually Shared Relationships (“Caring & Sharing”)
5) Level 4 / Mature Friendship (“Friends Through Thick & Thin”)
Social Relationships
characteristics of Level 0 / Momentary Playmates (“I Want It My Way?”) according to Selman (1980)
age range & friendship dynamics
- 3 to 6 years old
- friends = children they currently play with or who live nearby
Social Relationships
characteristics of Level 1 / One-Way Assistance (“What’s In It For Me?”) according to Selman (1980)
age range & friendship dynamics
- 5 to 9 years old
- children recognize that friendships extend beyond their current activities
- friends = children who do nice things for them
- don’t think about what they contribute to the friendship
Social Relationships
characteristics of Level 2 / Two-Way, Fair Weather Cooperation (“By the Rules”) according to Selman (1980)
age range & friendship dynamics
- 7 to 12 years old
- concerned with fairness & reciprocity in friendships
- believe if they do something nice for a friend, the friend should do something nice for them
- if that doesn’t happen, the friendship is likely to end
Social Relationships
characteristics of Level 3 / Intimate, Mutually Shared Relationships (“Caring & Sharing”) according to Selman (1980)
age range & friendship dynamics
- 8 to 15 years old
- share secrets & do things for each other because they genuinely care about their friends
- likely to feel betrayed when a best friend chooses to spend time with someone else
Social Relationships
characteristics of Level 4 / Mature Friendship (“Friends Through Thick & Thin”) according to Selman (1980)
age range & friendship dynamics
- 12+ years old
- value emotional closeness with friends
- accept differences between themselves & their friends
- less likely to feel threatened when a close friend has other friendships
Social Relationships
characteristics of rejected-aggressive children
- hyperactive & impulsive
- often in conflict with peers
- have trouble regulating their emotions
- misinterpret the intentions of others as hostile
Social Relationships
characteristics of rejected-withdrawn children
- submissive & passive
- a high degree of social anxiety
- negative expectations about how they’ll be treated by others
Social Relationships
characteristics of neglected children
- low rates of interaction with peers
- rarely engage in disruptive behaviors
- usually well-adjusted
Social Relationships
research on outcomes for unpopular children has found that outcomes for which type of children are worse: rejected or neglected children. How?
- children actively rejected by their peers
- express greater loneliness, lower self-esteem, less likely to experience an improvement in their peer status when they change schools or social groups
Social Relationships
Carstensen’s (1993) Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
1. assumptions
2. types of people/perceptions, primary motivation(s), & characteristics
- motivation for friendships is related to people’s perceptions about the amount of time left in life
- type of people/perceptions
* view time as unlimited: primary motivations - future-oriented and knowledge-seeking; prefer friends who provide them with information that might be useful in the future
* view time as limited: primary motivations - present-oriented and emotional closeness; more selective about who they ahve as friends & prefer friendships that evoke positive feelings & avoid those that evoke negative feelings
Social Relationships
(older/younger) adults are more like to perceive time as limited & prefer emotionally close friends, but there are exceptions. List an exception.
- older adults
- younger adults who have a life-threatening illness
Social Relationships
according to Carstensen et al.’s (1995) research investigating emotion regulation in happily & unhappily married couples found that which type of married couples were less likely to engage in “negative start-up.” Why?
- unhappily married older couples
- these couples have learned to use strategies that limit the experience of negative emotions
Social Relationships
define negative start-up according to Carstensen et al.’s (1995) research
response to their partners’ expressions of neutral affect with expressions of anger, disgust, or other negative emotions
Social Relationships
list 2 frequently cited models of successful aging
1) Rowe & Kahn’s (1987) Three-Component Model
2) Baltes & Baltes’s (1990) Selective Optimization with Compensation Model
Social Relationships
list 3 factors that are essential for successful aging according to Rowe & Kahn’s (1987) Three-Component Model
1) reducing the risk for disease & disease-related disability
2) maintaining high cognitive & physical functioning
3) staying actively engaged with life by being connected to otheres & involved in productive activities
Social Relationships
Rowe & Kahn (1987) propose that the relationship between the 3 factors of successful aging are…
hierarchical (the absence of disease is necessary for good cognitive & physical functioning, which in turn, are necessary for active engagement in life. Also propose that people have some control over the 3 factors through their diet, exercise, and other lifestyle choices)
Social Relationships
list the 3 adaptive processes of successful aging according to Baltes and Baltes’s (1990) Selective Optimization with Compensation Model, which can be used to minimize age-related losses and maximize age-related gains - define these.
adaptive processes
1) selection
2) optimization
3) compensation
* age-related losses: declines in sensory acuity and cognitive processing speed
* age-related gains: increases in knowledge & wisdom
Social Relationships
what does selection involve according to Baltes & Baltes’s (1990) SOC model
narrowing goals and activities to those that are of greatest interest and importance
Social Relationships
what does optimization involve according to Baltes & Baltes’s (1990) SOC model
acquiring or strengthening the skills needed to achieve selected goals & activities
Social Relationships
what does compensation involve according to Baltes & Baltes’s (1990) SOC model
obtaining assistance (e.g., services, devices) that will help achieve selected goals & activities
