Sociocultural

Question 1

Define culture

Answer 1

Cultures are made up of a set of attitudes, behaviors and symbols shared by a large group of people. Cultural groups are characterized by different norms and conventions.

Question 2

What is surface culture?

Answer 2

Surface culture includes all of the aspects of culture that are outward and visible - like the foods, language, places of worship, and style of dress that are common within a culture

Question 3

What is deeper culture?

Answer 3

The real impact, encompassing our beliefs, attitudes and thoughts

Question 4

Organize these according to the iceberg model:
Food, Music, Language, Norms, Artifacts, , Beliefs, Values, Behavior, Perceptions, Views on raising children, Etiquette

Answer 4

Surface: Artifacts, Behavior, Food, Music, Language

Deeper: Values, Beliefs, Etiquette, Perception, Views on raising..

Question 5

What is cross culture psychology?

Answer 5

The study of inter connected and inter related cultures as a result of globalization

Question 6

What is Hofstede’s definition of culture?

Answer 6

The collective programming of the mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from another

Question 7

What is Matsumoto’s definition of culture?

Answer 7

A unique meaning and information system, shared by a
group and transmitted across generations allowing the group to:

-Meet basic needs of survival
-Coordinate socially to achieve a viable
-Existence
-Transmit social behaviour
-Pursue happiness and well-being
-Derive meaning from life.

Question 8

Define cultural norms

Answer 8

Cultural norms are the unique set of
attitudes, beliefs and behaviours specific to a
particular culture.

Question 9

Define Enculturation

Answer 9

Enculturation is the process by which individuals
learn their culture. This could be via observation,
formal instruction or direct personal experience.

Question 10

How is Cultural transmission accomplished?

Answer 10

Cultural transmission is accomplished through
the process of enculturation and social
cognition

Question 11

What is gate keeper theory?

Answer 11

Kurt Lewin (1890–1947) - A psychology and communication theory
related to who controls access to information
and ideas in a social group

Question 12

What is cultural honor?

Answer 12

A culture of honor exists in societies where
individuals (normally men) place a high value
on strength and social reputation and where any
insult to someone’s reputation, family or property
is met with a violent response

Question 13

Cohen et al (1996)

Answer 13

Method: Quasi Experiment

Aim: Test his theory that southern white males in the
USA responded differently to threats and insults
than northern white males

Participants: 83 Male University of Michigan
students who either grew up in the south or the
north of the USA. (42 northern, 41 southern)

Procedure: Those who group in southern states for at least 6 years: (Texas, Kentucky, Delaware etc.) were deemed southern, and the remaining students were deemed northern. A confederate bumped into the participant and then insulted him by calling him by a derogatory name.

Findings: Northerners were only half as likely as
southerners to become more angry about than
amused by an insult (35% versus 85%)

Question 14

Acculturation

Answer 14

A process of psychological
and cultural change as a result of contact and
interaction between cultures

Question 15

In group favoritism

Answer 15

Behavior that is biased towards the benefits of the in-group

Question 16

Minimal group paradigm

Answer 16

The experimental procedure where trivia group differences are created artificially to investigate the effects of social categorization on intergroup discrimination

Question 17

Out-group discrimination

Answer 17

Behavior that creates disadvantages for the out-group

Question 18

Social categorization

Answer 18

The cognitive process of categorizing` people into in-groups and out-groups

Question 19

Social comparison

Answer 19

The process of comparing the in-group to out-groups

Question 20

Social identity

Answer 20

The part of self-concept( a collection of beliefs about oneself) that is based on group membership

Question 21

Human Agency

Answer 21

The belief that people are agents of their own behavior; includes intentionality, forethought, self-reactiveness and self-reflectiveness

Question 22

Observational learning

Answer 22

Learning that occurs as a result of observing other people preform actions as well as the consequences of the actions. This is a form of indirect learning.

Question 23

Reciprocal determinism

Answer 23

A model of three interacting factors: personal factors (physical, cognitive and emotional), behavior and environment

Question 24

Self-efficacy

Answer 24

The extent which individuals believe they can master a particular behavior

Question 25

Illusory correlation

Answer 25

A cognitive mechanism that leads a person to perceive a relationship between two events when in reality they are not related

Question 26

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 26

A change in a individual’s behavior as a result of others’ expectations about this individual

Question 27

Stereotype

Answer 27

A preconceived notion about a group of people; stereotypes are cognitive (beliefs), unlike prejudice (attitudes) and discrimination (behavior); stereotypes are intended to make generalizations about entire groups

Question 28

Stereotype threat

Answer 28

The anticipation of a situation that can potentially confirm a negative stereotype about one’s group

Question 29

Culture (Matsumoto 2007)

Answer 29

A “unique meaning and information system shared by a group and transmitted across generations”

Question 30

Cultural dimension

Answer 30

General factors underlying cross cultural differences in values and behaviors; they have been identified on the basis of massive cross-national surveys

Question 31

Emic approach

Answer 31

Examining a specific culture from within; enables an in depth understanding of the unique culture without “imposed etic” but comparison with other cultures is difficult

Question 32

Etic approach

Answer 32

Studying cultures from an outside perspectives: enables cross-cultural comparisons, but requires the identification of universal phenomena that will serve as comparison criteria

Question 33

Cultural Transmission

Answer 33

Passing cultural norms (attitudes, behaviors and beliefs) from one generation to the next

Question 34

Assimilation

Answer 34

Internalizing the norms of the dominant culture where you have migrated

Question 35

Tajfel et al 1971

Answer 35

Aim: To investigate effects of social categorization on inter group behavior in a minimal group paradigm ( Social identity theory)

Participants: 64 English 14-15 year olds who knew each other well from school

Method: repeated measures design

Procedure: participants were shown 40 slides with clusters of dots. They were instructed to estimate the number of dots. Participants were told they would participate in another experiment given the convenience of their presence.

Participants went to individual cubicles in which they had to distribute rewards (real money) to either to in group members or outer group members. Matrices had ingroup-ingroup or ingorup-outgroup or outgroup-outgroup. The scale was from 1 to 14. Choosing 14 have the i group member the greatest profit, 7.5 is the fairest.

Results: The mean choice of different group matrices was 9.2
The same group matrices had a mean closer to 7.5 (fairness)

Question 36

Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961)

Answer 36

Aim: To investigate how observing an adult model behaving aggressively towards an inflatable doll influences children’s subsequent aggressive behavior ( Social learning theory )

Method: independent measures lab experiment

Participants: 72 Children (half boys half girls) ages 3-6

Procedure: 24 children observed an actor behaving physically and verbally aggressively towards a bono doll and asp playing with toys normally
24 children saw an actor perform no aggressive actions, only the actor playing with toys normally
24 children sawn no actor

The child was then taken to another room and was provoked to be aggressive by taking it away from toys.

The child was brought to a third room similar to that of the first (where the actor was). The behavior was observed for 20 minutes.

Results: Participants exposed to children were more likely to act aggressive towards the BoBo Doll.
When the actor was of the same sex, children were more likely to repeat their actions
Boys were more aggressive in general, and were more physical where as girls were more verbal

Question 37

Perry, Perry and Rasmussen 1986 XX

Answer 37

Aim: To explore the links between aggression and self-efficacy as well as knowledge of consequences
(Social cognitive theory)

Method : Correlational study

Participants: Elementary school children

Procedure: Children answered two questionnaires. One measured self-efficacy to perform aggression. The other measures the beliefs about reinforcing and punishing consequences.

Results: Aggressive children reported that it is easier to perform aggression, and we’re confident that it would be met with rewards.

Question 38

Hamilton and Gifford 1976

Answer 38

Aim: To investigate illusory correlations based on the frequency of rare events.

Participants 70 American undergraduates (1:1, M:F)
Method

Procedure: Participants read a series of sentences describing desirable or undesirable behaviors of members from group A and B. Groups were abstract to avoid participants having existing stereotypes exist. There were half as many group B members but the proportion of desirable to undesirable behaviors were the same.
Participnats read individual sentances of each group members beaviours.
Then participants were asked to estimate the number of desirable and undesirable performed by each group

Results: Members overestimated the frequency of negative behaviors performed by minority group, and overestimated the positive behaviors of group A

Question 39

Steele and Aronson 1995

Answer 39

Aim: To Investigate test performance as a function of stereotype threat in white and black participants

Participants: 114 male and female, black and white Stanford undergraduates.

Method Independent Measures Experiment

Procedure: Participants took a 30 minute verbal test that was challenging. Participants were either told this test had no measure of intellect or that the test measured intellect.
The idea being that being told it measures intellect would trigger existing stereotypes.

Results; White participants performed equally well in both conditions
Black participants performed significantly better when stereotype threat wasn’t activate (told it doesn’t measure intellect) performing equally as well as white people.

Question 40

Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968 (Not EOY)

Answer 40

Aim: To investigate whether students whom are expected to have greater intellectual growth will show greater intellectual growth over the period of one year

Participants 320 public school students

Method: Independent measures experiment

Procedure: Teachers we’re falsely told certain students were expected to have larger intellectual growth

Results: Those said to be growth spurt ers gained on average 4 IQ points more . In group one the sputtered had 15 points more on average.

Question 41

Chiu 1972

Answer 41

Aim: To carry out a cross-cultural comparison of cognitive styles in Chinese and Us students (Cultural influence on cognition)

Participants 537 Chinese and Us students of similar socio-economic status.

Method: independent measures experiment

Procedure: 28 sets of 3 related photos were shown. Participants were instructed to chose two which were related and discard the third.

Results: Us students grouped items analytically and categorically, while Chinese were more holistic and contextual in their grouping

Question 42

Berry and Katz 1967

Answer 42

Aim: To investigate whether cultural differences in individualism versus collectivism affect conformity

Participants: Individualistic Inuits which hunt, and Temne people who rely on crops and thus are more collectivistic

Method: Quasi-experiment

Procedure: The researchers showed a series of lines to which they had to state which of the lines were of equal length to the line at the top of the page. Participants were sometimes told that the members of their group picked a certain line as the correct answer (which in reality was not correct)

Results: Temne people were significantly more likely to change their answers when told their group picked a different line
The Inuits were mostly unaffected by what the majority of members from their group chose

Question 43

Finkelstein 2010 not mock

Answer 43

Aim: To examine the effect of culture on volunteer behavior

Participants: 194 US undergraduates

Method: Self reported questionnaires, Correlational study

Results: Collectivism was more strongly related to selfishness and desire to strengthen social ties
Only Collectivism correlated with helping to sustain self image
Individualism was correlated strongly with volunteering for career related reasons.

Question 44

Eylon and Au 1999 (Not EOY)

Answer 44

Aim: To investigate the relationship between power distance and empowerment in the workplace

Participants: 135 Canadian MBA students

Method:

Procedure: Participants we’re divided into high PDI and low PDI depending on their country of origin. They participated in management simulation where they all experienced moments of empowerment and disempowerment

Results: Regardless of cultural background participants were more satisfied when empowered and less satisfied when disempowered.
Those with high PDI didn’t perform as well when empowered. Low PDI participants performed consistently regardless of condition

Question 45

Kim and Omizo 2006

Answer 45

Aim: Examine the relationship between Asian American college students enculturation and acculturation in relation to the development of identity

Method: Correlational study

Participants: 156 Asian American students aged 18-24

Procedure: Psychometrical questionnaires we’re given taken by the students. Enculturation was operationalized as engagement in Asian American cultural behaviors. Acculturation was operationalized as engaging in European American behaviors

Results: Acculturation and enculturation did not correlate thus they are separate. Enculturation was related positively to participants perception that they are worthy members of their cultural group.
Enculturation was associated with positive attitude towards Asian American social group

Question 46

Da costa, Dias and Martins (2017)

Answer 46

Aim: To compare the prevalence of being overweight between immigrants and natives in Portugal

Participants: 31,000 Portuguese people, where 4.6% were migrants

Method: Correlational study

Results: Excessive weight was more common in native Portuguese people, and there was a positive correlation between length of stay of migrants and tendency to be overweight

Question 47

Social Identity theory (1)
Social Cognitive theory (1)
Stereotypes (2)
Cultures influence on behaviour/cognition (1)
Cultural dimnesions (1)
Enculturation (2)
Acculturation (1)

Answer 47

Social Identity theory:
-Tajfel et al 1971

Social Cognitive theory:
-Bandura, Ross and Ross 1961

Stereotypes:
-Hamilton and Giiford 1976
-Steele and Aronson 1995

Cultures influence on behaviour/cognition:
-Chiu 1972

Cultural dimnesions:
-Berry and Katz 1967

Enculturation:
-Odden and Rochat 2004
-Cohen et al 1966

Acculturation:
-Da costa, Dias and Martins (2017)

Question 48

Odden and Rochat 2004

Answer 48

Aim: To study the role of observational learning (based on social cognitive theory) in enculturation in Samoa

Method: longitudinal naturalistic observation study (lasting 25 months)

Participants 28 children aged 4-12 of in one Samoan village

Procedure: In Samoan culture parents do not spend much time with their children, believing that children can learn important skills and values on their own. Children were not taught how to fish, as the supply of fishing equipment was limited.

Observations were made of the children’s behavior over 25 months, and at the end of the study, children completed a multiple choice test that tested their knowledge of the values of Samoan society, including the Chief system

Results

Children spent a great deal of time observing how adults fished. By the time the children were 10, they began borrowing fishing equipment and by 12 most were capable fishermen (despite never being taught how to fish)

The multiple choice test demonstrated that most children had a basic understanding of the concepts and rituals of their society, including the Chief system, despite not having been explicitly taught these by teachers or parents. Children were able to learn the norms of their culture simply by observing and overhearing the conversations of others
​
Conclusion

Observational learning plays a significant role in enculturation. It is possible for children to learn the values, norms and behaviors of their culture simply by observation and imitation

Question 49

Odden and Rochat 2004

Answer 49

Aim: To study the role of observational learning (based on social cognitive theory) in enculturation in Samoa

Method: longitudinal study (lasting 25 months)

Participants 28 children aged 4-12 of in one Samoan village

Procedure: In Samoan culture parents do not spend much time with their children, believing that children can learn important skills and values on their own. Children were not taught how to fish, as the supply of fishing equipment was limited.

Observations were made of the children’s behavior over 25 months, and at the end of the study, children completed a multiple choice test that tested their knowledge of the values of Samoan society, including the Chief system

Results

Children spent a great deal of time observing how adults fished. By the time the children were 10, they began borrowing fishing equipment and by 12 most were capable fishermen (despite never being taught how to fish)

The multiple choice test demonstrated that most children had a basic understanding of the concepts and rituals of their society, including the Chief system, despite not having been explicitly taught these by teachers or parents. Children were able to learn the norms of their culture simply by observing and overhearing the conversations of others
​
Conclusion

Observational learning plays a significant role in enculturation. It is possible for children to learn the values, norms and behaviors of their culture simply by observation and imitation