Socio cultural studies Flashcards
1
Q
Studies for SIT
A
Sherif 1954
Drury et el 2009
2
Q
Fagot aim
A
to determine the role that parents may play in gender-role development.
3
Q
Fagot sample
A
- 24 families (12 with a boy and 12 with a girl)
- Each only child between 20 and 24 months
- Both parents lived at home and 20 - 30 years old
- All white
- varied in income
4
Q
Fagot method
A
- observation checklist of 46 child behaviours and 19 reactions by parents
- 5 60-minute observations completed for each family over 5 weeks
time sampling, making note of behaviour every 60 seconds - each parent was asked to rate the 46 behaviours as more appropriate for girls, for boys, or neutral and also filled out a questionnaire on the socialisation of sex roles
5
Q
Fagot results
A
- Boys were more likely to be left alone
- boys more positive responses when they played with blocks
- girls more negative responses when they manipulated an object
- More positive responses to girls than boys for playing with dolls
- criticised girls more when they participated in activities like running and jumping
- more positive responses to girls when they asked for help
- Fathers were more concerned with appropriate sex-typing
- both parents found more behaviours appropriate for girls only than for boys only
6
Q
Fagot conclusion
A
- Parents reacted more favourably to the child when the child was engaged in same-sex preferred behaviour
- more likely to receive negative responses to cross-sex-preferred behaviours
- Parents gave girls more positive responses when they engaged in adult-oriented, dependent behaviour
- On the questionnaire, parents did not see asking for help as a sex-preferred behaviour; however, they were more likely to act positively toward a girl than a boy asking for help = not fully aware
7
Q
Fagot strenghts
A
- Naturalistic = high ecological validity.
- two observers = not influenced by personal biases
8
Q
Fagot limitations
A
- Culturally biased
- demand characteristics
- low internal validity
- small sample
- In reality, there may be more or fewer behaviours that the parents would normally criticise when they are not being observed
9
Q
2 studies for cultural groups and influences on behaviour
A
Berry 1967
Kearins 1981
10
Q
Berry aim
A
- based on earlier research by Barry, Child, and Bacon (1959) which suggested that hunting and fishing societies tend to be individualistic, whereas agricultural societies tend to be collectivistic
- aim of measuring the level of conformity in these two types of societies by applying a version of the Asch Paradigm.
11
Q
Berry sample
A
- Temne of Sierra Leone = rice farming.
Inuit people of Baffin Island, Canada, = hunting and fishing - made up of people who maintained the traditional way of life and people who either had a Western education or Western employment
- Scots as a reference group - both urban and rural Scots
- approximately 120 participants in each group
12
Q
Berry method
A
- Each individual was brought into a room by him or herself
- given a set of nine lines
- 2 practice tests
- on 3rd “Most Temne (or Inuit or Scottish) people say this line is equal in length to the one at the top” and correct answer given
- trials 4 - 6, the wrong response was given
13
Q
Berry results
A
- Temne (collectivistic) much higher rate of conformity
- Inuits even lower rate of conformity than Scots
- no significant difference if the participants were living the traditional life or were highly exposed to Western culture
14
Q
Berry strengths
A
- The directions were given in their own language by a native interpreter
- control condition to strengthen the internal validity of the study
- highly replicable
15
Q
Berry limitations
A
- lacks ecological validity
- Quasi-experiment = causality cannot be determined
- questions of temporal validity, more globalised world = more access to media could be different
- ecological fallacy = lead to stereotyping about cultural groups
16
Q
2 studies for the impacts of globalisation on stereotypes
A
novotny and polonsky 2011
Chiu 2009
17
Q
aim of norasakkunit and uchida
A
applied Berry & Sam’s acculturation model to explain the origins of hikikomori
17
Q
2 studies for the impacts of globalisation on acculturation
A
Norasakkunkit and Uchida 2014
18
Q
norasakkunit and uchida sample
A
195 Japanese uni students
19
Q
norasakkunit and uchida method
A
3 tests:
1. standardised test to see whether high risk or low risk for hikikomori
2. measure attitudes about social harmony and conformity, looked at three levels: perception of their current self, ideal self, Japanese society
3. measure local identity (high social harmony and collectivism) and global identity (high individualism and achievement)
20
Q
norasakkunit and uchida results
A
- both groups agreed social harmony and conformity highly valued by Japanese society
- high risk ranked social harmony values much lower than the low-risk students
- high-risk scored lower than low-risk on local identity and global identity
21
Q
norasakkunit and uchida conclusion
A
local culture may alienate many Japanese youths who decide not to conform to the cultural norms but can’t access the globalised culture so they withdraw from society
22
Q
norasakkunit and uchida strengths
A
Large sample
23
Q
norasakkunit and uchida weaknesses
A
- correlation study = no cause and effect determined
- Biased sample = not generalisable
- Analogous approach = students don’t actually have hikikomori
- Data self reported = demand characteristics
- Doesn’t explain why mainly in japan and not in other marginalised groups world wide
24
2 studies for SCT
Bandura 1961
Joy, Kimball & Zabrack 1986
25
2 studies for stereotype formation
Hamilton and Gifford 1976
Hillard and Liben 2010
26
2 studies for the effect of stereotypes
Steele and Aronson 1995
Payne 2001
27
2 studies for cultural dimensions
Chen et al 2005
Berry 1967
28
2 studies for research methods into cultural origins of behaviour and cognition
Berry 1967 - quasi
Kearins 1981 - quasi
29
2 studies for ethical considerations when investigating cultural origins of behaviour and cognition
Berry 1967
Kearins 1981
30
2 studies for enculturation
Greensfield 1969
Fagot 1978
31
2 studies for acculturation
Lueck & Wilson 2010
Wang et al 2010
32
2 studies for research methods into cultural influences on individual behaviour
Lueck & Wilson 2010 - semi structured interview
Fagot 1978 - observation
33
2 studies for ethical considerations into cultural influences on individual behaviour
Fagot 1978
Lueck & Wilson 2010
34
Sherif 1954 aim
- to study whether a conflict between groups could be diminished if they worked together on a superordinate goal.
- Predicts that:
- positively independent groups - work towards common goals - will have good intergroup relations
- negatively independent groups - compete for scarce resources - will create conflict and ethnocentric attitudes
35
Sherif 1954 sample
- 22 boys - aged 11-12, white, middle class, protestant, Oklahoma
- None of them knew each other
- Didn't know they were taking part
36
Sherif 1954 method
- Split into two random groups
- Picked up in different buses
- Bonding stage = create group identity
- Conflict through games eg. tug of war with prizes and eating others food if they got there first
- Created limited resources
- Hostility between groups eg. setting flags on fire, raiding cabins, physical fights etc
- Boys asked to list features of their group and the other
- Reducing tensions with common goal eg. food truck “breaking down” and the boys had to work together to pull it
37
Sherif 1954 results
Showed they called in group favourable terms and out group unfavourable
38
Sherif 1954 conclusion
Showed how conflict between groups arises and how it may be solved
39
Sherif 1954 strengths
- Field experiment = high ecological validity
- Also very controlled for field experiment
40
Sherif 1954 limitations
- Could not observe boys at all times eg. at night or more private conversations
- Could show demand characteristics
- Ethical consideration - signs of emotional distress eg. bedwetting and running away
- Also no consent from boys
- Sample bias - only young american boys = not generalisable
41
Drury et al 2009 aim
used virtual reality to investigate the role of SIT in helping
42
Drury et al 2009 sample
- 40 students from University of Sussex
- 20 to 25 years
- 7 participants were male - the rest was female
43
Drury et al 2009 method
- VR simulator to experience an emergency in London metro - escape a fire
- could help people or push them out of their way
- Before starting the participants asked to read a news report about a fire in the King Cross metro where 31 people died
- either told:
“You have just been to an England football match… You and the other England supporters are making your way through the local rail station”
- Or:
“You have spent a long day shopping in central London and are now on the way back”
- rest is the same
- "people" in the VR simulation wore same shirts to make social group identity salient
- one condition there was a small crowd (8 other people)
- other was larger (32 other people)
44
Drury et al 2009 results
- participants with a high in-group identification gave more help and pushed others less than did those who did not have in-group identification
- Crowd size did not affect the amount of help given
45
Drury et al 2009 strengths
- mundane realism
- Internal validity
- Applicable
46
Drury et al 2009 limitations
- Culturally biased
- Only uni students
47
2 studies for research methods into the individual and the Group
- Sherif 1954
- Bandura 1961
48
2 studies for ethical considerations into the individual and the Group
- Sherif 1954
- Bandura 1961
49
2 studies for research methods into the effect of globalisation on behaviour
- Norasakkunit and uchida 2014
- Chui 2009
50
Bandura 1961 aim
- demonstrate that if children see aggression by adult, they will imitate
- Predict that:
- children exposed to aggressive models will reproduce aggressive acts
- children will imitate the behavior of a same-sex model to a greater degree than a model of the opposite sex
51
Bandura 1961 sample
- 36 boys and 36 girls (3 and 6 years old)
- one male adult and one female adult to act as role models
52
Bandura 1961 method
- three major conditions: a control group, a group exposed to an aggressive model, and a group exposed to a passive model
- if exposed to models, divided by their gender and by the gender of the model
- So 8 experimental conditions plus control
- Before put into groups, observed children in nursery and asked teacher and gave a rating out of 5 for aggressiveness
- Grouped children so most and least aggressive spread out between conditions
- Tested individually
- Watched the model either play with blocks or bobo doll (physical and verbal aggression)
- After 10 min the child taken to a room and taken out saying they couldn’t play with those toys to increase frustration
- Then taken to a room with aggressive (mallet, gun etc) and non aggressive (teddy bears, crayons etc) toys
- Experimenter in the room
- In the room for 20 min
- Observations made every 5 seconds
53
Bandura 1961 results
- with aggressive model they made more aggressive acts
- boys made more aggressive acts than girls
- boys showed more aggression if male model
- the girls showed more physical aggression if male model but more verbal aggression if female model
- However girls punched more often
54
Bandura 1961 strengths
- Matched pairs design - controlled for child’s level of aggression
55
Bandura 1961 limitations
-Very small sample
- Doesn’t take into account biological factors
Ethics
-Low ecological validity
- Children alone with strangers might act differently
56
Joy, Kimball & Zabrack 1986 aim
the impact of television on children's aggressive behavior by carrying out a longitudinal natural experiment
57
Joy, Kimball & Zabrack sample
- Notel - small town in British Columbia, Canada -Television was introduced into the Notel community in 1973
- 120 children
58
Joy, Kimball & Zabrack method
- observed physical and verbally aggressive behavior displayed by elementary school children on the playground in before and after (1975) they received one Canadian channel
- Also got teacher and peer ratings of aggressive behavior and information about television viewing habits were obtained
- 2 other towns also studied in the same area that already had tv
59
Joy, Kimball & Zabrack results
- aggressive behavior increased significantly from 1973 to 1975
- But not in other towns
- peer and teacher ratings support
- males were more physically aggressive
- children's favorite shows had no difference
60
Joy, Kimball & Zabrack strengths
- Data triangulation
- Large survey
- Control towns
61
Joy, Kimball & Zabrack limitations
- Don’t know what the children watch - could have no violence in it
- Only establishes correlation not cause
- Other factors at play
62
Steele and Aronson aim
to see how stereotype threat affects test performance in African Americans
63
Steele and Aronson sample
114 male and female, black and white undergraduates from Stanford University
64
Steele and Aronson method
- two independent variables: race of participant and test descriptions
- Tests were all the same but told either: tests intellectual ability or tests problem-solving
65
Steele and Aronson results
- no significant difference between male and female
- Black = worse on intellectual test because of the stereotype threat
- In non-threat condition performed same
66
Steele and Aronson limitations
- Biased sample
- Independent samples
- Salience to race identity and stress levels not measured during exam
- Don’t even know if they felt threatened
67
Payne aim
- Stereotypes have unconscious effect on behavior
Eg. shooting of young black males by police in the US, although they’re unarmed
68
Payne sample
- 32 non-Black undergraduates
- 25 women and 7 men
69
Payne method
- IAT = Implicit Association Test
with 2 black and 2 white male faces, photos of hand tools (pliers, wrench, drill) and guns
- practice round with 48 trials just identifying tools vs. weapons, without the faces - errors nearly zero
- next round told tested speed and accuracy
- face briefly flashed followed by a second image
- indicate whether second image was a weapon or a tool
- given 500 milliseconds to respond
- Each participant carried out 192 trials
70
Payne results
- The rate of errors was 29%
- misidentified tools more often than misidentifying weapons
- more likely to think tool was gun when primed with a Black face
- race of prime did not affect the likelihood of misperceiving the gun as a tool
71
Payne strengths
- pilot study was done but without the time pressure - error rate only 6% with no clear evidence of stereotype = time pressure – a form of high cognitive load – played a key role in why the stereotype had such an effect
- High internal validity
- High applicability
72
Payne limitations
- Bias sample = not generalisable
- Low ecological validity
- Many trials = fatigue or boredom
73
Kearnins 1981 aim
- Indigenous Australians tend to score low on Western verbal intelligence tests. Kearnins tested whether they might perform better on tests that took advantage of their ability to encode with visual cues
74
Kearnins sample
- 44 adolescent Indigenous Australians aged 12 - 16 years (27 boys, 17 girls)
- separate settlements of the Western Desert region living under semi-traditional tribal conditions
- All spoke English as a second language
- 44 adolescents (28 boys, 16 girls) of white Australian origin
- The white participants taken from a high school in an outer suburb of Perth
- The sample was matched for age and sex
75
Kearnins method
- 20 objects on a board divided into 20 squares
told to study the board for 30 seconds
- objects covered and heaped in a pile in the centre of the board
- Told to reconstruct of the board with the objects in the same arrangement
- Artificial different - 20 man-made objects likely to be familiar to white Australian children (knife, eraser, thimble, die, ring, scissors, matchbox)
- Natural different - 20 naturally occurring objects, likely to be familiar to desert children (feather, rock, bark, leaf, small skull, wildflower.).
- Artificial same 12 bottles differing in age, size, shape, and colour
- Natural same 12 rocks differing in size, shape, colour, and texture
76
Kearnins results
- On all four tasks, the Indigenous Australian children correctly relocated more objects than did white Australian children
- least difference between the two groups was on the artificial different task
- Indigenous Australian children showed no significant difference whether the task was "artificial" or "natural." - This means that the objects themselves did not affect the results of the study.
- Perfect performances for whites less than 5% of total performances on both 12- and 20-item arrays
- 18% of the white Australian children managed one perfect score, and none obtained two or more perfect scores
- 75% of the Indigenous Australians made at least one perfect score, and 41% made at least two error-free performances
- Indigenous - sat very still and did not engage in conversation, done with careful deliberation, very efficient and made a few changes after their initial placements
- White - move around on their seats, pick up objects, turn the objects over, talk to themselves or to the researcher, seemed concerned about the same item arrays about not knowing what to call the objects to distinguish them, began the process in a hurry and then slowed down, towards the end they tended to change their initial placements around a lot
77
Kearnins conclusion
- that the survival of the Indigenous Australians in the harsh desert landscape had encouraged and rewarded their ability to store or encode information using visual retrieval cues. These interesting results suggest that survival needs may shape and reward a particular way of encoding information in memory
78
Kearnins limitations
- quasi-experiment = independent variable (culture) cannot be manipulated = correlational not able to establish a cause-and-effect relationship
- single sample = Replications of the study would have to be done with other indigenous groups in order to determine the extent to which this correlation is reliable
- Temporal validity
79
Chen et al aim
- Confucian work dynamism = long-term versus short-term orientation
- Collectivistic = long-term orientation = persistence, saving money, sense of shame around leisure time, future is more important than now
- Individualistic = short-term orientation = value present, based on current needs, quick results, leisure time important
- Aimed to see if culture would affect purchasing behaviour
80
Chen et al sample
- 149 bi-cultural participants
- Singaporean university
81
Chen et al method
- conducted online
- randomly assigned to conditions
- made either Singaporean or American identity more salient - showing collage of photos emblematic of the culture eg. famous buildings, brand names, flag, celebrities etc
- asked to write down what they could remember
given a shopping scenario to buy a novel online
- told delivery cost was 2.99 Singaporean dollars
- take five business days to arrive but could pay extra to get in one day
- asked how much they would pay to receive it tomorrow
- list first three politicians that came to mind
82
Chen et al results
- American = higher value on immediate consumption than Singaporean values
- participants listed politicians relevant to the culture they primed for = priming remained throughout study and should discount individual differences
83
Chen et al conclusion
- It appears that Confucian Work Dynamism played a role in their online shopping behavior
84
Chen et al strengths
- final test on politicians = determine that the priming had been successful and likely affected decisions.
- Naturalistic as done online like online shopping
- highly standardized and could be replicated
85
Chen et al limitations
- done online = control variables - such as potential help from others or other distractions in the environment.
- Not generalisable
- Just because someone from a culture doesn’t mean that they have same values
86
Greenfield aim
- vertical transmission = when children learn from parents
- longitudinal study of enculturation with Mayan mothers and daughters
- aimed to explore how children learn cultural weaving
- From late 1960s for over 40 years
87
Greenfield sample
- 14 mother-daughter pairs from 1969-1970
88
Greenfield method
videotaped naturalistic observations of families working their looms
conducted many interviews in Tzotzil
mothers denied consciously ‘teaching’ daughters but observed to assess progress, providing verbal direction as needed and intervening less as girls improved
89
Greenfield results
- form of enculturation = apprenticeship = guidance from the older generation which prevents experimentation
- impact of this activity = teaches importance of listening and respecting authority, contributing to family and role of women in Mayan culture
- not only skill of weaving taught but important cultural values
90
Greenfield strengths
- Emic approach
- Dressed and lived with them for years = show actual practices, less of an outsider, formed bonds with women, access to more data
- All in native language - Tzotzil
91
Greenfield limitations
- interpretation of the transcripts = researcher bias
- overt observation = demand characteristics = behaved more attentively to daughters
- Only one small community with 14 participants = hard to generalise
92
Lueck and Wilson aim
- investigate the variables that may predict acculturative stress in a nationally representative sample of Asian immigrants and Asian Americans
93
Lueck and Wilson sample
- 2095 Asian Americans
- 1271 first-generation immigrants (18 years + when moved to US)
- rest born in the US to first-generation immigrants
- several different Asian cultures, including Chinese, Filipino, and Vietnamese
94
Lueck and Wilson method
- semi-structured interviews
- interviewers had cultural and linguistic backgrounds similar to those of the sample
- conducted either online or face-to-face A randomly selected sample of participants was contacted to validate the data taken from their interviews.
- measured participants’ level of acculturative stress
- impact of language proficiency, language preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion, and socioeconomic status on acculturative stress
95
Lueck and Wilson results
70% found to have acculturative stress
96
Lueck and Wilson conclusion
- bilingual = lower stress
- do not know the native language well enough to discuss with family = higher stress
- speaking only English = higher stress
- Negative treatment = higher stress
- Sharing similar values and beliefs as a family = lower stress
- Better economic opportunities = lower stress
97
Lueck and Wilson strengths
- Large sample
- Semi structured interview allowed for follow ups
- Included 1st and 2nd generation
98
Lueck and Wilson limitations
- Interviewer bias
- Social desirability effect
- Some might not want to talk about struggling
- Construct validity - how do you measure acculturative stress?
99
Wang et al aim
Test relationship between dimensions of acculturation (relationship with Cuban culture, relationship with US culture, ethnic identification) and positive psychological functioning (depression, anxiety, self esteem)
100
Wang et al sample
- 119 Cuban-American university students in Miami
at least one parent born in Cuba
- 80% female
- 23% born outside US
101
Wang et al method
Online survey
102
Wang et al results
- biculturalism was linked with more positive outcomes (e.g., higher self-esteem, lower depression, and lower anxiety)
103
Wang et al strengths
- Unlike other socio-cultural studies that are unidimensional (focus of relationship of participants either with heritage or host culture) this is bidimensional = more complex understanding of relationship with both
104
Wang et al limitations
- Online survey = self reported = demand characteristics
- Small biased sample
-Hard to tell if someone depressed from a survey
105
Chui aim
to see if exposing European American participants to another culture would increase their stereotypes about their own culture.
106
Chui sample
58 European American undergraduates
107
Chui method
- independent samples design
- single condition = Nike sports ad with male Caucasian model
- joint presentation condition = same ad next to Chinese sports ad with male Chinese model
- asked to rate “likeability” of the ad
- test to measure attitudes to dimensions in American and Chinese culture
108
Chui results
- joint presentation condition = rated Americans much more individualistic and having control over their lives, less likely to believe in duty to family or need to conform
- being exposed to two cultures at same time = American identity and values more salient
- The results were strongest in individuals with high identification with their local identity
109
Chui conclusion
- Globalisation doesn’t decrease local culture
- globalized environment draw attention to their own cultural heritage
- joint presentation from two cultures appears to highlight difference between cultures
-increase in global products played role in reinforcing traditional values in local communities, rather than destroying local cultures
110
Chui limitations
- Bias sample = not generalisable
- Low ecological validity
- Didn’t measure salience of identity
- Just because someone is from somewhere doesn’t mean they value the same things
111
Hamilton and Gifford theory
- Stereotype = generalisation where individual judged based on group membership or physical attributes which uses system 1 thinking
- So can be viewed as schemas = over simplification of the world that help us process the world, in complex world rely on cognitive frameworks and shortcuts
- Illusory correlation is theory of how stereotypes form = tendency to overestimate relationship between two groups when distinctive and unusual information is present
- Two types:
- - expectancy-based
- - - when we mistakenly see relationships due to pre-existing expectations eg. see librarian is quiet and assume because librarians are quiet people
form of confirmation bias = see what you expect to see and this strengthens the belief
- - - if something doesn't match that expectation = ignore it or think it’s an expectation = discounting principle
- - Distinctiveness-based
- - - when a relationship is believed to exist between two variables due to focusing too much on information that stands out
- - - type that Hamilton and Gifford investigated
112
Hamilton and Gifford aim
Investigate illusory correlation bias specifically distinctiveness based
113
Hamilton and Gifford sample
40 American undergraduates (20 m, 20 f)
114
Hamilton and Gifford method
- Told that there are 2 groups - A (26) and B(13) meaning B is minority
- shown a series of slides with statements about a member of A or B and was positive or negative
- Each group had the same proportion of positive and negative comments
- asked to rank members of each group for 20 traits eg. popular, social, intelligent etc
- given booklet where given statement and asked whether a person from A or B did it
- asked how many of the statements for each group had been "undesirable"
- Half of group did the booklet then the ranking
115
Hamilton and Gifford results
- For trait ratings, A ranked higher than B for positive and lower for negative
- For booklet recalled 74% of positive for A and 54% for B but 55% of A negative and 65% for B
116
Hamilton and Gifford conclusion
- argued that this was because minority smaller in number so negative behaviors appeared more distinct and so representative
- Eg. one minority male is caught stealing and it appears to be related to the fact that he is a minority
117
Hamilton and Gifford strengths
- There have been follow up studies with similar results
- Applicable to real life
- Repeated measures design as all participants completed = concurrent conditions = eliminates participant variability
118
Hamilton and Gifford limitations
- Low ecological validity
- Not all findings statistically significant
119
Hillard and Liben theory
- Stereotype = generalisation where individual judged based on group membership or physical attributes which uses system 1 thinking
- So can be viewed as schemas = over simplification of the world that help us process the world, in complex world rely on cognitive frameworks and shortcuts
- Many theories eg. illusory correlation
- This study investigates social categorisation
- Part of social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner) = categorising everyone into groups and we see members of our groups more similar then they are = Out group homogeneity
- So easier to apply stereotypes without considering whether the characteristic are actually true of a particular person
- Also we don’t interact with out group as much as in group learn very little and more likely to maintain stereotype
120
Hillard and Liben sample
- 2 preschools = 57 US children from 3 to 5
- roughly equal number of male and female
121
Hillard and Liben method
- pre-test/post-test design
- gender attitude test to measure “gender flexibility.”
shown pictures of activities or occupations, and asked if boys, girls, or both should perform it
- included 22 masculine (e.g, firefighter), 20 feminine (e.g. play with dolls), and 24 neutral (e.g., fly a kite) items by pointing to one of three cards to show who they believed should do the activity
- lower numbers of ‘‘both’’ = increase gender stereotypes
- observing play to see they played with same-sex vs opposite-sex peers
- schools were randomly allocated to one of two conditions:
- high salience: Children made aware of gender by lining them up by gender, posting separate boys’ and girls’ bulletin boards, and teachers’ use of gender-specific language
- Low salience: no changing teacher behavior = control group
- It is important to note that in both preschools, it was the policy to avoid gendered language. Children in both conditions had experienced similar classroom environments prior to the study
- lasted for two weeks
122
Hillard and Liben results
- in the pre-test, both had a similar number of "both" responses
- after the two weeks of high gender salience, there was a significant decrease in the number of "boths" = children had more gender stereotypes
- In high salience play with the "out-group" or other sex decreased significantly after posttest
- Stayed same in low salience
- children in the high salience condition showed significantly increased gender stereotypes
123
Hillard and Liben strengths
- Debriefed to counteract any possible increase in stereotyping and to help children understand prejudice and stereotypes
- High ecological validity
- Establish cause and effect
124
Hillard and Liben limitations
- Low internal validity
- Sample bias - private preschool
- Hard to measure the salience of children
- Ethical?
125
novotny and polonsky aim
- Investigate contact hypothesis - Allport (1954) argued that prejudice can be reduced if the majority has positive contact experiences with members of a minority group
126
novotny and polonsky sample
- 716 uni students from 7 Czech and Slovak cities
stratified sample based on specialization eg. % of social science, technology, and natural science students same
- Chosen randomly from uni rosters
127
novotny and polonsky method
- No significant Muslim immigration so only 10% had Muslim friend and 23% said never met muslim
- survey divided into 4: knowledge about Islam, views of Muslims, geography of Islamic world, personal characteristics of participant
128
novotny and polonsky results
- level of knowledge about Islam negatively correlated with perceived threat – more knew less felt threatened
- also found in level of contact with Muslims and travel to Muslim countries
- both education about Muslims and personal contact have an effect on decreasing prejudice
129
novotny and polonsky conclusion
- argued that this was because minority smaller in number so negative behaviors appeared more distinct and so representative
- Eg. one minority male is caught stealing and it appears to be related to the fact that he is a minority
130
novotny and polonsky strengths
- There have been follow up studies with similar results
- Applicable to real life
- Repeated measures design as all participants
completed = concurrent conditions = eliminates participant variability
131
novotny and polonsky limitations
- Low ecological validity
- Not all findings statistically significant
