Social Thinking and Behaviour Flashcards
What is Allports definition of social psychology?
How thoughts, feeling and behaviours of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of other
What three areas of social psychology?
- social thinking- how we thnk about our social world, understandings of the social world and others in it
- social influence - how other people influence our behaviour
- social relations - how we relate toward other people
What i social cognition?
Concerns the social side of our mental processes and how people make sense of themselves and others around them
What are the three basic human needs?
- need to belong - feeling accepted in groups helps us feel safe and secure
- need for control - want for control in everyday activities - this may be illusory
- need for self-enhancement - motivates us to seek out and remember info that makes us feel good
Explain Asch (1946) work
- pts heard one of two identical but different order lists
- one list had more postivie words at the front - these people were more likely to evaluate the individual favourably
What is the primacy effect
Our tendency to attach more importance to the initial information we learn about a person. Later info can make an impact but it has to work harder
How can the first information we hear have an impact?
- may shape how we perceive subsequent information, eg always see an individual in a bad light
- may influence our desire to make further contact with individual
- may change the way you interact with them - the word they were described wiht (shy or cold)
What is a mental state?
A readiness to perceive the world in a particular way
What are schemas?
Mental frameworks that help us organise and interpret information
Define a stereotype
A shared belief about a persons attributes, usually personality trait, but often also behaviours, of a group or category of people. An example of a schema. Can be positive or VERY negative
Explain Darley and Gross’s (1983) research into social class biases
- pts were showed video of 9yr girl and they were asked to judge her academic performance
- they were either told she came from a middle class background or a w/c background
- m/c - rated her as having higher academic potential than w/c condition
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy
Our expectations affect our behaviour toward a person, which can cause the person to behave in a way that confirms our expectations e..g if told was cold, you may act reserved toward them whenn you first meet, but if told shy, you may try and engage with them instead - your behaviour may influence theirs
what are self-schemas?
Mental templates, made up of memory from past experience, that represent a person’s belief about the self. This may draw on complex/multipe view - student, mother, leader or follower
What are attributions?
Judgements about the causes of our won and other people’s behaviour
What are personal (internal) attributions?
Infer that people’s characteristics cause their behaviour e.g. did well in test because you are intelligent
What are situational (external) attributions?
\Infer that aspects of a situation cause a behaviour e.g. did badly in an exam because the test was hard/ well because it was easy
What are the three types of information that determine the type of attribution we make?
- consistency
- distinctiveness
- consensus
What is consistency when determining an attribution?
Is the behaviour consistent? Is a certain factor always present or does it change?
What is distinctiveness when determining an attribution?
Is a behaviour unique to a particular environment or situation?
What is consensus when determining an attribution?
Determined by what other people generally think, feel or how they behave in a certain situation
Explain the Art History example in what determines an attribution.
- if consistency, distinctiveness and consensus is high then we are likely to note it down to situational attributions - for example, Kim always says Art History is boring, Kim only says this class is boring, other students also find Art History boring
- If consistency is high, but distinctiveness and consensus is low then we are likely to note it down to personal attributions, for example, Kim always says it is boring but she says the same for all her classes, however, her classmates disagree with her
What factor decreases the likeliness of a man being convicted of the rape of a woman?
Whether the woman consumed alcohol
What is the fundamental attribution error?
We underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal factors when explaining other people’s behaviour. FOr example, someone, when a driver almost causes an accident you are likely to put it down to them being a bad driver rather than thinking about what was going on in the car or the drivers head at the time. The individual may never have has a single incident in his life but you judge them of that one single action
How can the fundamental attribution error be reduced?
- if people have time to think about the behaviour
What is the self-serving bias?
The tendency to make personal attribution’s for one’s own successes and situational attributions for one’s own failures. For example, intelligent cos did well on exam, did badly so must be hard exam
What does the self-serving bias do?
It protects and enhances our self-esteem
Does the self-serving bias cover everyone?
It doesn’t expand to depressed people - almost vice versa - prolongs and maintains the depression
Does the FAE work for everyone?
It isn’t universal. Some culture, particularly Asian cultures, think more holistically
What is an attitude?
A positive or negative evaluation of a stimulus. These are relatively stable but can change.
Why do attitudes not always predict behaviour? - check the first answer in the book!!!
- attitudes influence our behaviour more strongly when situational factors that contradict our attitudes are weak
- attitudes have greater influence on behaviour when we are aware of them
- attitudes have greater influence when they are strongly held
- general attitude best predict general behaviours, whereas specific attitudes best predict specific behaviours
Explain why attitudes influence our behaviour more strongly when the situational factors that contradict our attitudes are weak
Ajzen expanded on this idea suggesting the idea of Theory of Planned Behaviour. It proposes that we are most likely to engage in a behaviour when:
- we have a positive attitue towards it
- the subjective norms support our attitudes
- when we believe the behaviour is under our control
Give an example of when attitudes have a greater influence on behaviour when we are aware of them and these attitudes are strongly held.
If you were offered meat - a lifelong vegetarian will profusely deny this, but someone who has only be vegetarian for a week may have it (due to forgetting as it isnt a strongly held attitude or other factors)
Explain the idea that general attitude predict general behaviours and specific attitudes predict specific behaviours. - Fishbern and Ajzen
They found that general religious attitudes or beliefs do not predict specific behaviours. For example, an atheist going to church over Christmas
Can behaviour also influence our attitudes?
Yes. It is a two way process. This can happen with cognitive dissonance or the self-perception theory
Explain the concept of cognitive dissonance.
Festinger proposed it. People strive for consistency in their cognitions - dissonance (inconsistency) creates disturbances
How do people overcome dissonance?
- change their cognitions
- add new cognitions
What is counter-attitudinal behaviour?
Behaviour that is inconsistent with our own attitudes
When may dissonance not occur, even if our behaviour is contradictory of our attitudes?
when we do not see our behaviours as freely chosen. For example, vegetarians eat meat when gun against their head. This isn’t seen as cognitive dissonance as it wasnt a free choice
What causes extreme dissonance?
- when behaviours produce foreseeable negative consequences
- when behaviours threaten our sense of self-worth
What is the self-perception theory?
We make inferences about our own attitudes by observing our own behaviours - what your attitudes must be in order for you to behave that way
What is an example of the self-perception theory changing our attitudes?
When we are tapping our foot along to a song. Someone questions us because previously we have announced that we didn’t like this band. We start to think we actually like the band
What does the cognitive dissonance theory mention that the self-perception theory doesn’t?
Cognitive dissonance mentions a heightened physiological tension when participating in counter-attitudinal
When can cognitive dissonance explain attitude change when self-perception theory can’t as easily?
When counter attitudinal behaviour threatens our self-worth or when the inconsistency is really high. Whereas, self-perception theory can explain attitude change in situations that are less likely to create significant arousal.
What do persuaders do?
They try to influence our beliefs and attitudes so we will behave as they want us to
What are the three main factors of persuasion?
- The audience
- The communicator
- The message
What is the central route to persuasion? (the audience) and why is this likely to occur?
When people think carefully about the message and are influenced because they find the arguments compelling. This usually happens when the topic is relevant or important to an individual
What is the peripheral route to persuasion? (the audience) and why is this likely to occur?
When people do not scrutinize the message but are influenced mostly by the other factors such as the attractiveness of the speaker or a message’s length or emotional appeal. Usually happens when we spend less time processing the information because we dont see the cause as being something relevant or important
What is different about attitude change from central rather than the peripheral route of persuasion?
It lasts longer and predicts future behaviour more accurately. The attitudes are more robust and resistant to counter influence attempts
What is communicator credibility?
How believable we perceive the speaker to be
When is communicator credibility more influential on someones attitude?
When the audience isn’t paying much attention to the messages- they may instead base their attitudes on the credibility of the source
What are the two major components of credibility?
- expertise
- trustworthiness
Explain expertise and credibility?
Someone who appears to be an expert is seen as credible. They can seem like an expert if they present the truth and an unbiased argument. Additionally, a title or item of clothing increases credibility
Explain trustworthiness and credibility?
Someone who advocates a view that is contrary to their own self interest is seen as trustworthiness
What is a message that covers both sides of the argument? And how is this perceived?
It is called a two-sided refutational approach (check this name). It is the most effective message as this will be perceived as less bias
When does fear arousal in a message work best?
When the fear is just moderate levels and this message should supply strategies to reduce the fear,
Explain what Triplett tested and found?
He tested whether the presence of others improves performance? HE found that when children performed a simple physical task alone compared to with another child who independently completed the task, performance improved when the other child was present
Why do people think that presence of others reduces performance?
- presence of others increases our arousal which may lead us to making more mistakes and our dominant responses are more likely to occur
- When a task is complex, our dominant responses are often incorrect so we make error
What is social facilitation?
An increased tendency to perform one’s dominant responses in the mere presence of others
What is compliance
.A surface change in behaviour which isnt reflected with the true underlying cognitions
What are compliance techniques?
Strategies that may manipulate you into saying yes when you want to say no
Explain the norm of reciprocity
The expectation that when others treat us kindly, we should respond in the same manner
Give an example of norm of reciprocity being used as a complaince technique
Offer something like a flower or a gift in hope that the individual will feel pressure to reciprocate the kindness later when they are presented with a small request, a donation request
When is the norm of reciprocity the strongest
When it occurs between friends or within groups important to us
Explain the door-in-the-face technique
A persuader makes a large request expecting you to reject it an then presents a smaller request
Give an example of the door-in-the-face technique
It is common in telemarketing - first ask for larger monetary contribution and when you deny this they ask for a smaller contribution which you are more likely to say yes to. Wang did this with $25 and then $2 - more likely to give two dollars after already been asked to donate 25, in comparison to immeadietly being asked to donate dollars
Why does the door in the face technique work?
the first request produces guilt when you reject it but then the smaller request gives an opportunity to reduce our guilt if we comply
Explain the foot-in-the-door technique
A persuader gets you to comply with a smaller request and later presents a larger request
Give an empirical example of the foot in the door technique
Gueguen - An email from a stranger which requires a 2 min response, a second email asks for help with a class project that will require a response of 20 mins - 76 responded to the 20 min email when they had the 1st email, but only 44 replied when they were asked immediately
Explain lowballing
A persuader gets you to commit to some action and before you can perform this they increase the cost of the same behaviour
give an example of lowballing
Common in car sales - buying a car and agree to a price, you then go to the office and the salesperson just goes and check the price is good with their manager, comes back saying a hgiher price is needed - more likely to commit to price increase
Why does lowballing work?
Because you have already made a commitment, you find it easier to rationalise the increase in cost or you may just feel obliged
What study did cohen and davis in 1981 do
eardrops up the bum
explain Milgram
- teacher (pts), leaner (confederate)
- teacher applies shock to learner when they give wrong answer
- at 375v it said danger:severe shock on the switchboard, 450v XXX
- heart problems were known about by all
- silent from 345v
- if learners ask who is responsible the experimentor says tthey are
- pts trembled, sweated
65% went to 450v
What were the predictions of the percentage that would obey all they way
1%
Full obedience percentages for the two conditions where remoteness increased
- in the same room - 40%
- place hand on shock pad - 30%
Full obedience percentages for the two conditions where the closeness and legitimacy of the authority figure changed
- orders by the phone - 20%
- ordinary civilian taking over the orders - 20%
Full obedience percentages for diffusion of responsibility
- another confederate switched the shock lever, so someone else was doing the ‘dirty work’ - 93%
What effect did personal characteristics have on Milgrams study?
Politics, religion, occupation, education, length of military service, psychological characterisitcs caused weak or non-existent differences
What effect did gender have on Milgrams study?
There was no difference in obedience behaviour between male and females
What are the conclusions that can be made from Milgram’s study?
- Full obedience isn’t because they are evil - they showed signs of anxiety therefore this suggests they cared about the welfare of the others
- The situation an individual finds themselves in determines how they will act
- links to attrocities in history such as the holocaust
What are social norms?
Shared expectation about how people should think feel and behave. People become alarmed when these are violated
What are social roles?
A set of norms that characterise how people in a given social position ought to behave e.g. student, lecturer, world leader
What is role conflict?
This can occur when we have many roles and the norms of these roles clash - for example, a student on placement is still a student but is holding down a 9-5 job
Explain Sherif’s (1953) research - dot of light
- pts in room of complete darkness where dot of light projected on screen which remains stationary at all times
- pts percieved it to move at varying amounts - 2cm to 30 cm
- pts were then placed in a group of 3 where they discussed their judgements and a group norm evolved overtime as their judgements merged
- when pts were tested individually the nest day, they still conformed to the group norm
What is conformity?
The adjustment of individual behaviour, attitudes and beliefs to a group
What are the two types of conformity?
Normative social influence and informational social influence
What is normative social influence?
Conformity to obtain the rewards that come from being accepted by other people while at the same time avoiding their rejection
What is informational social influence?
Following the opinions of other people because we believe that they have accurate knowledge and that what they are doing is right
Explain Asch (1951) - lines
- the experiment ruled out the influence of informational social influence as the task were unambiguous
- judge which of the three lines matched X
- other pts were confederates and were told to all answer an unanimous wrong line on 12/18 (critical) of the trials
- pts conformed 37% of the time
- 75% of pts conformed at least once
How does group size effect Asch’s research?
Conformity increases as group size increases, until a group of 5 where it remains stable
How do dissenters effect Asch’s research?
One person disagreeing with the others greatly reduces group conformity, even if the dissenters named the other incorrect line
Is there greater or weaker conformity within an ingroup?
Ingroup conformity is greater than outgroup conformity
Explain Moscovici’s research (1969)
- Majority of 6 participants, minority of 2 confederates
- pts had to judge the colour of a blue slide which varied intensity - either blue or green?
- confederates said green either consistently on every trial or just for 2/3 of the trials
- consistency - 8% pts responded with green
- 2/3 - 1% responded with green
- clearly shows consistency is important
What type of conformity is majority influence most likely to be a result of?
Normative social influence - compliance if afraid to publicly disagree with majority
What type of conformity is minority influence most likely to be a result of?
Informational social influence - lead to private acceptance and real attitudinal changes
What 7 factors did Moscovici believe to optimise the minority influence?
- highly committed to POV
- remain independent in the face of majority pressure, but be seen to keep an open mind
- disrupt the majority norm and produce uncertainty and doubt
- offer an alternative view which must be coherent
- make yourself visible
- show that the movement from majority to minority is necessare
- be highly consistent overtime
What is social loafing?
The tendency for people to expend less individual effort when working in a group in comparison to working alone
Explain Ringelmann and the tug of war and what is this an example of?
- He measured the effort in a mock tug of war.
- on average men can pull 63kg so it was assumed that an 8 man team could pull 504kg
- but the group performance was 51% below expectation- this is an example of social loafing
What is the collective effort model?
People will only put forth as much effort as they believe is needed to reach the goal
when is social loafing more likely to occur
- the person believes that individual performance isn’t being monitored
- the task or group has less value or meaning to the person
- the person expects the other group members will display high effort
When is social loafing more likely to occur (what factors)?
- in all male groups
- in individualistic cultures
What factors may mean social loafing disappears?
- individual performance rewarded/ monitored
- value group members
- value task
What is social compensation?
Working harder in a group than when alone to compensate for other members of the group lower output. However, this may encourage loafers more
How can you reduce social loafing?
Try and get loafers involved by creating a group identity
What is group polarization
when a group of like-minded people discuss an issue, the average opinion of group members tends to be more extreme
What is groupthink?
The tendency of group members to suspend critical thinking because they are striving to seek agreement
When is a desire to reach an agreement strong?
when a group:
- is under high stress to reach a decision
- is insulated from outside input
- has a directive leader
- has high cohesiveness (motivated to maintain a positive view of their group)
What are the many symptoms of groupthink?
- direct pressure applied to the people who disagree or express doubt
- mind-guards - people who prevent negative info from reaching group
- members display self-censorship and withhold own doubts
- illusion of unanimity created
What is deindividuation?
A loss of individuality that leads to disinhibited behaviour. for example, the Stanford prison experiment and cruelty shown by the guards
What causes deindividuation?
Crowds can cause this - because feel like an outsider and anonymous
What are intergroup relations?
Whenever individuals belonging to one group interact, collectively or individually, with another group or its members in terms of their group behaviour
What is prejudice?
A negative attitude towards people based on their membership to a particular group. This attitude can be hidden or expressed
What is discrimination?
Overt behaviour that involves treating people unfairly based on the group to which they belong -this is the act of the behaviour being carried out
What is ingroup favouritism ?
The tendency to favour in group members and attribute more positive qualities to us rather than them
what is outgroup derogation?
Tendency to attribute more negative qualities to ‘them’ and to ‘us’
What is the realistic conflict theory?
Competition for limited resources fosters prejudice - eg, prejudice increases when economic conditions worsen in EU and USA
How can suicide bomber be explained
When there is conflict and competition, our willingness to sacrifice our own interest for the benefit of the group
What is explicit prejudice?
Prejudiced attitudes about certain groups that people have some control over - these are expressed publicly - like in 50/60s prejudice was a lot more open. easily measured
What is implicit prejudice?
Prejudiced attitudes that are not easily suppressed, but arise automatically - these are often hidden from public and often not revealed at all. Also, people dont always know their implicit prejudices. Not easily measured
How are implicit prejudices measured?
Implicit association test - an implicit measure that can reveal many types of unconscious prejudice. Stimuli presented quickly and a quick response is required. More likely to be slower for pairings you dont agree with
What is Word, Zanna and cooper’s research into prejudicing confirming itself
- when pts gave interviews to confederates, they sat further away, made more errors and conducted shorter interviews for black candidates
- in second experiment white applicants for ‘job interview’ were either assigned to condition where they were treated as white or as black interviews had been in first experiment
- Found those who were treated more negatively performed more negatively
Explain the stereotype threat
stereotypes create self-consciousness among the stereotyped group members and a a fear that they will live up to other peoples beliefs
Give an example of the stereotype threat in action
Women in science:
- if women feel there is a stereotype this will put them under pressure which may affect their performance - therefore the unsuccess may be due to the pressure rather than the lacking of their abilities
- Steel, James and Barnett (2002) - supported the above - assessment anxiety can support the stereotype
How can the stereotype threat be reduced in women in science
- allow them to take tests without presence of males
- expose them to female role models in this area
How can you reduce prejudice?
-Intergroup contact: equal status contact
What is equal status contact?
prejudice between people is most likely to be reduced when:
- people engage in sustained, personal and close contact - for example, have to work together
- the groups have equal status
- the groups work together to achieve a common goal that requires cooperation
- supported by broader social norms
What are the problems of equal status contact?
- It doesnt work if factors aren’t met - for example, schools may be integrated but the wider social norms still remained discriminatory
- when the status isnt equal this just maintains both groups’ views
What are cooperative learning programmes?
These place children in multiracial learning environments where contact is close and group cooperation is vital for success
What is the mere exposure effect?
Repeated exposure to a stimulus typically increases a liking for it - as long as this isnt an unpleasant stimulus or we arent oversaturated
What is important for attraction?
- proximity
- similarity
- physical attractiveness
Explain the beautiful is good phenomena
we assume attractive people have more positive personality characteristics than unattractive people. the halo effect
Hoe can beauty cause self-doubt?
May believe e have positive responses due to our beauty rather than our personal qualities
What is the matching effect?
We are most likely to have a partner whose level of physical attractiveness is similar to our own
Why may the matching effect occur?
- people may hold back from approaching more attractive people (for dating partners) in fear of rejection
- more attractive people often taken first
What is passionate love?
Intense emotion, arousal and yearning for partner - this tends to be less stable and rarely a base for a long-term relationship
What is compassionate love?
Affection and deep caring about the partner’s wellbeing
What is the triangular theory of love?
Love involves three major components: passion, intimacy and commitment
LOOK AT THE TRIANGLE IN THE BOOK
LOOK AT THE TRIANGLE IN THE BOOK
What is passion?
feelings of physical attractiveness and sexual desire
What is intimacy?
Closeness, sharing and valuing one’s partner
What is commitment?
Remain in relationship with nobody else
What is consumate love?
The ultimate form of love: passion, intimacy, commitment
What are the different suggestions of why people help/ are prosocial?
- evolution
- social learning
- empathy and altruism
What is kin selection?
Organisms are more likely to help others with whom they share the most genes with - usually their offspring- this increases likelihood genes will pass on
How do evolutionary psychologists explain prosocial behaviour that dont involve family
Reciprocal altruism - helping other increased the likelihood that they will help us or our offspring back in return - there is a selfish basis
What is the norm of reciprocity in terms of prosocial behaviour
reciprocate when other are kind - this is uprooted in our upbringing
What is the norm of social responsibility? What are cultural influences here?
People should help others and contribute to the welfare of society - Hindu children were more likely to feel morally obligated to help others
What is altruism?
Unselfishness - helping another person for the ultimate purpose of enhancing another persons well being
What is an evaluation point against altruism?
We can never be fully unselfish. There are always underlying egotistic goals because helping others always increases self-esteem, or praise or reduces guilt or our own discomfort
Batson believes that true altrusim does exist - this is the empathy-altruism hypothesis - what is it?
Altruism is produced by empathy - the ability to put oneself in the place of another and to share what the person is experiencing - the more empathetic we are, the more the more likely altruism will drive our choice
What is a criticism of the empathy-altruism hypothesis?
We will always feel some form of positive emotion from pro-social behaviour - when we experience empathy we are desperate to relieve their pain - when their pain is relieved we immediately feel better
What are the situations and factors that increase the likelihood that we will help that Eisenburg suggested?
- musn’t be in a harry
- have recently observed a pro-social role model
- being in a good mood
What is the 5-step bystander intervention process?
- notice the event
- decide if the event is an emergency - can be ambiguous - often will look around to see others responses
- assuming responsibility to intervene - may diffuse the responsibility when you look at how others respond
- self-efficacy in dealing with the situation - are they capable of helping
- decision to help - cost-benefit analysis - weigh up pros and cons
What is the bystander effect?
The presence of multiple bystanders inhibits each person’s tendency to help - largely due to social comparison or diffusion of responsibility
What makes us most likely to help?
- those who we are most similar to - easier to emphasise if they are more like you
- if you are male you are most likely to help a female, but if you are a female then you respond equally to each gender
What makes us less likely to help?
We are less likely to intervene if we perceive the situation of having an element of fairness - less likely to help if they ‘brought it upon themselves’ - under influence of alcohol or drugs
How do we increase prosocial behvaiour? 3 differnt factors
- expose individuals to prosocial models - research shows that we are more likely to donate blood if a video is shown with a pro-social model rather than just an educational model
- encourage empathy and connections
- learning about factors that hinder bystander intervention (like BITB) - education helps, an educated group was more likely to intervene in mock scenario in comparison to control group
