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Mind and Behaviour > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

1
Q

Define memory

A

Processes that enable us to record, store and retrieve experiences and information

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2
Q

How has memory allowed our species to survive?

A

We learn from experience and adapt to our changing environments.

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3
Q

What is encoding?

A

Processing information into your system by translating it into a neural code that your brain can understand.

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4
Q

What is storage?

A

Retaining information over time

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5
Q

What is retrieval?

A

Processes that access the stored information

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6
Q

Explain the computer-mind analogy (include encoding, storage, and retrieval)

A
  • Encoding – typing on a computer creates an electrical code that computers understand – like the neural code that our brain can understand
  • Storage – information is filed away and stored on harddrive or RAM
  • Retrieval – opening a file on a computer
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7
Q

Explain the problems with the computer-mind analogy (there are two)

A
  • Humans make errors – we may forget or distort information – we can even make up memories
  • The complexity cannot be captured by information-processing model
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8
Q

What are the three main components of the multi-store model of memory?

A

Sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory

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9
Q

Define sensory memory and its two subsections

A

A store that briefly holds incoming sensory information. Consists of echoic and iconic store.

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10
Q

What is the iconic store?

A

The visual sensory register

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11
Q

Explain Sperling’s (1960) research into iconic store and the findings.

A

It assessed the capacity and duration of the iconic store. Participants could only recall 3-5 out of the 12 letters displayed in 3 rows with 4 letters, but when a tone indicated which row they would need to recall, they could always recall with 100% accuracy suggesting that they processed all the letters. When the tone was delayed 1 sec recall went back to 3-5 letters, this suggests that the duration is 1 second.

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12
Q

What is the echoic store?

A

The auditory sensory register

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13
Q

What is the duration of the echoic store?

A

Several seconds

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14
Q

Define the short-term memory

A

A memory store that temporarily holds a limited amount of information

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15
Q

What is a memory code? Name a few types of codes - there are 4 i’ve written about.

A

A mental representation of some type of information or stimulus which can take various forms:

  • mental images are visual codes
  • sounds are phonological codes
  • meaning of a stimulus are semantic codes
  • actions are motor codes
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16
Q

What is the capacity of the STM?

A

7 +/- 2 meaningful items - to increase capacity we can chunk though

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17
Q

Define chunking

A

Combining individual items into larger units of meaning

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18
Q

What is the duration of the STM?

A

18-30 seconds - but rehearsal extends the duration

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19
Q

What is working memory?

A

A limited capacity system that temporarily stores and processes information. The working memory model believes there are separate components: central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop and episodic buffer

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20
Q

What is working memory? And what are the components.

A

A limited capacity system that temporarily stores and processes information. The working memory model believes there are separate components: central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop and episodic buffer

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21
Q

What is the phonological loop?

A

Stores auditory information. It is active when you listen to spoken word or when you read in your head. This consists of the phonological store and the articulatory rehearsal system (which silently repeats info that you are trying to retain)

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22
Q

What is the visualspatial sketchpad?

A

Stores visual and spatial information

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23
Q

What are the slave systems and what is the concept behind this?

A

They are the phonological loop an the visualspatial sketchpad. These two systems can work together at the same time.

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24
Q

What is the central executive?

A

This controls the slave systems. It directs the action of the working memory. It divides and allocates the attention of the slave systems

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25
Q

What is the episodic buffer?

A

The info from the slave systems can be integrated and made available for conscious awareness

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26
Q

How does the working memory model process information and what research proved this?

A

When participants were asked to immediately recall letter strings, when they letter strings sound similar recall was poorer than dissimilar letter strings. This suggests that the processing is phonological, not semantic.

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27
Q

What is the duration of the working memory model and what research shows this?

A

When participants were asked to immediately recall series of words, recall was better for short words than long words. This suggests that storage depends on time to rehearse the information.

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28
Q

Define long-term memory?

A

Our vast library of more durable stored memories

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29
Q

What is the capacity of the LTM?

A

Unlimited

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30
Q

What is the duration of the LTM?

A

Up to a lifetime

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31
Q

Explain the primacy recency effect (or the serial-position effect)

A

The ability to recall an item is influenced by its position in a series. Primacy effect - remember the early words because you can rehearse them and transfer them to the LTM. Recency effect - remeber the last words because they are still in the STM. The recency effect can wiped out if recall is delayed.

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32
Q

What is effortful processing?

A

Encoding that occurs intentionally and requires conscious attention. For example, repeating, making lists and revision

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33
Q

What is automatic processing?

A

Encoding that occurs without intention and requires minimal attention. For example, information about frequency, spatial location and sequences of events. Explains why you cant answer an exam question but you can remember the set-out of the page you ready the information from.

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34
Q

Explain the concept of levels of processing?

A

The deeper we process it, the better we will remember it

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35
Q

What are the different levels of processing?

A
  • Structural encoding: remembering how the stimulus looks (shallow processing)
  • Phonological encoding: remembering how the stimulus sounds (intermediate processing)
  • Semantic processing: remembering what the stimulus means (deep processing)
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36
Q

How effective is exposure?

A

Exposure without attention to the information is an example of shallow processing. Even 1000s of shallow exposures do not guarantee encoding into the long term memory

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37
Q

What is maintenance rehearsal?

A

Simple, rote repetition. For example, how some actors learn line by reading over and over

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38
Q

What is elaborative rehearsal?

A

Rehearsal by focusing on the meaning of the information or by expanding it in some way. For example, some actors try to understand the mindset of their characters. Craik and Lockhart said that this type of rehearsal involves deeper processing than maintenance rehearsal.

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39
Q

Briefly explain the case if JC the waiter

A

Although there were 500 different possibilities of orders, JC could remember all orders without recording them. He invented a method to remember them - an organisational scheme. He divided the orders into four different categories and then had another system to encode these orders in each category.

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40
Q

What two ways does Paivio suggest information is stored in the LTM?

A

Verbal and visual codes.

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41
Q

Explain the dual-encoding theory.

A

Memory is enhanced by using both verbal and visual cues to encode information into the LTM because there is a greater chance that at least one of the cues will be available at recall.

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42
Q

Explain what method of loci is?

A

A memory aid that associates information with a mental image of a specific physical location. To recall this information you mentally walk around this location.

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43
Q

What is a mnemonic device?

A

A memory aid that organises information into more meaningful units. For example, acronyms and peg-word techniques.

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44
Q

Explain what a peg-word technique is.

A

You think of a word that rhymes with each number (1-10). You then associate the word to be remembered with each peg word (the rhymes). You then run through the numbers to aid recall of the words.

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45
Q

What is an associative network?

A

A large web or network of associated ideas and concepts. It is a type of schema that helps us understand the world. Here each unit of information is represented by a node.

46
Q

Explain what spreading activation is.

A

In a network, spreading activation is the linking of related concepts throughout the network. For example, fire engine is linked to red, but also truck and fire.

47
Q

What is priming?

A

The activation of one unit of information by another unit of information. For example, the presences of the concept ‘fire engine’ primes the concept ‘red’. Priming makes it more likely that our memory for red will be accessed

48
Q

What is a neural network?

A

They are computer models that use the principles of the nervous system within its programming. For example,

49
Q

Explain what a node is.

A

It is actually quite complex. Each node is a small information-processing unit. Nodes do not contain single unit of information, for example, there is no single node for the concept of ‘red’ or ‘fire engine’. Each node has many other connections with other nodes.

50
Q

Define a neural network model.

A

The idea that every memory is represented by a unique pattern of interconnected and simultaneously activated nodes.

51
Q

What is declarative memory?

A

Pieces of information that we know and we can talk about. This includes semantic and episodic memory.

52
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

The episodes of our lives - where and what happened. This is knowledge consisting of information specific to your personal experiences .

53
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

This is general factual knowledge about the world and its language. This includes memory for words and concepts.

54
Q

What is non-declarative memory?

A

This is procedural memory. Memories of skills and actions. These procedures are hard to explain the process behind them. For example, it is hard to explain how to ride a bike.

55
Q

What is explicit memory?

A

When a memory is intentionally recalled. So, it has been recalled consciously. For example, recognition (line-up), recall (retrieving information that is needed to answer an exam question) and cued recall (rhymes with..)

56
Q

What is implicit memory?

A

This is when memory influences our behaviour without our conscious awareness. For example, this can be seen when we have a hunch feeling about a certain thing but can’t explain why. This is common in amnesia patients

57
Q

Explain the case of Edward Claparede (1911) and his patient.

A

His patient never remembered meeting him, although they met everyday. One day he pricked her hand with a pin when they shook hands. The next day, though she did not recall ever meeting him before, she flinched when he went to shake her hand.

58
Q

What is a retrieval cue?

A

It is a stimulus , that can be external or internal, that helps access information in the LTM.

59
Q

Explain the research that highlights the value of multiple cues. It is by Mantyle (1986)

A

Presented with 504 words which they either had to associate with one word or three. They were then asked to recall half of the words and were given either their own word (61%), their three words (91%), someone else’s word (11%) or someone else’s three words (55%). One week later, recall for the other 252 words was high when people were given their three associated words as cues (65%). This shows the importance of not only multiple cues, but also cues personal and generated by you. These both involve deeper processing and personal element helps access personal associative network.

60
Q

Explain the concept ‘value of distinctness’.

A

The idea that we remember distinctive memories better than non-distinctive ones. For example, we remember uncommon events (weddings, funerals, holidays) better than everyday events.

61
Q

Are arousing or neutral memories remembered better?

A

The memories of stimuli that trigger emotional responses are remembered better. IN research participants remember happy, fearful or violent stimuli better than neutral. This could be because these arousing stimuli trigger the release of the stress hormones which triggers the amygdala.

62
Q

What are autobiographical memories?

A

These are memories of the events of people’s lives

63
Q

Do pleasant or unpleasant events fade more quickly?

A

Normally, pleasant memories are slightly more robust and take a bit longer to fade than unpleasant memories. But for mildly depressed people, these two types of memory fade at the same rate.

64
Q

What are flashbulb memories?

A

These are memories that are so vivid that we can imagine them as if they were snapshots of moments in time. For example, common when you hear about the news of something big and shocking and you can remember where you were and what you were doing.

65
Q

Explain Conway et al’s (1994) research on Margaret Thatchers resignation.

A

Group of people in UK more likely to have looked at news coverage than the group of non-uk residents. It was more likely that the uk residents had a flashbulb memory (86% did). The uk remembered more on average.

66
Q

Explain Pezdek’s (2003) research.

A

Participants were asked if they had seen footage of the first plane on the day of the attack - this was impossible as the footage wasn’t shown on the day. Those who said they had seen the footage were much more confident about the accuracy of their memory than those who didn’t think they had seen it.

67
Q

Explain the encoding specificity principle.

A

The idea that memory is enhanced/the likelihood of retrieval increased when the conditions present at encoding are the same as the conditions present during retrieval.

68
Q

What is context-dependent memory?

A

It is easier to remember something in the same environment as the memory was originally encoded.

69
Q

Explain Godden and Baddeley’s research (1975). This is to do with context-dependent memory.

A

Scuba divers were given lists of words to remember. They either learnt on the beach or under the water. When they were tested for recall, those who were in the same context that they learned in.

70
Q

What is state-dependent memory?

A

It is easier to retrieve memory when our internal state matches our original state during learning. This can explain difficulty remembering the night before when we have sobered up.

71
Q

What is mood-dependent memory?

A

We tend to recall information or events that match our current mood.

72
Q

Explain encoding failure as an explanation for forgetting.

A

Forgetting occurs due to the information not being deeply processed enough, hence not being committed to memory.

73
Q

Explain the decay theory of forgetting.

A

The idea that with time and disuse or a memory, the physical memory trace in the long-term memory fades away.

74
Q

Explain the evaluation of the theory of forgetting.

A

Researchers haven’t been able to find the physical trace of a memory or measure memory decay. Also, this theory suggests that the longer time between retrieval means the more likely we are to forget the information; however, some actors can recall the lines for roles they haven’t practised in years.

75
Q

Explain the interference theory.

A

We forget information because other pieces of information interfere with out ability to retrieve it.

76
Q

Explain proactive interference.

A

Occurs when information that has been learned in the past interferes with the recall of newer information. We are trying to remember the new information but the old stuff keeps getting in the way. For example, tries to learn French but the Spanish you learnt previously keep interfering.

77
Q

Explain retroactive interference.

A

Occurs when the newly encoded information interferes with the ability to recall the older information that was encoded at an earlier time. For example, The french you have recently learned is interfering with the spanish you learnt previously.

78
Q

What is the tip-of-the-tongue state

A

When we cannot recall something but we are on the verge of remembering it.

79
Q

What is motivated forgetting?

A

Psychodynamics believe that some people consciously or unconsciously are motivated to forget certain memories. Freud believed that shocking and anxiety arousing memories are sometimes repressed.

80
Q

Define repression.

A

A defence mechanism that protects us by blocking the conscious recall of anxiety-arousing memories.

81
Q

What are prospective memories?

A

A memory to perform an activity in the future. For example, remember to turn the oven on or off, buy something at the shop. Elderly adults display poorer prospective memory.

82
Q

Define amnesia

A

Memory loss due to special conditions (for example, brain trauma, illness and psychological trauma)

83
Q

Define retrograde amnesia and give an example.

A

Memory loss for events that occurred in the time in their lives before the onset of the amnesia. For example, when someone, like rugby players, are knocked out with a concussion they usually can’t recall the events of just before.

84
Q

What is anterograde amnesia?

A

Memory loss for events that occur after the onset of amnesia. For example, HM had his hippocampus removed which inhibited his ability to consciously remember new experiences.

85
Q

Talk about Clive Wearing.

A

His hippocampus was almost totally destroyed due to a virus. He suffered both retrograde and anterograde amnesia. He could recall very few memories from before his amnesia and he was described as having a memory of very few minutes. His musical knowledge remained intact. SO, there was damage to the declarative but little to the prospective memory.

86
Q

What is dementia?

A

A degenerative disease with symptoms of impaired memory and other cognitive deficits, therefore it interferes with normal functioning. There are multiple types.

87
Q

When can dementia occur?

A

At any point in our lifetimes’.

88
Q

What is Alzheimer’s disease (AD)?

A

It is a progressive (symptoms gradually worsen) brain disorder that is the most common cause of dementia among adults over the age of 65. Symptoms: forgetfulness (first psychological function to become impaired), poor judgement, confusion, disorientation, language problems, disorganised thinking, personality changes.

89
Q

What are the possible processes that underlie Alzheimer’s disease?

A
  • Abnormal amounts of plaques and tangles in the brain
  • Acetylchloline plays a role in areas of the brain involved with memory, so deficiencies may underlie AD
  • There are possibly several genes that contribute to early onset
90
Q

What percentage of cases does AD account for of dementia?

A

50-60%

91
Q

How many elderly people have dementia?

A

2-4% of all people 65 or older.

92
Q

What is the one type of amnesia that we all experience? Explain what it is

A

Infantile amnesia. This is the memory loss of early experiences in our childhood.

93
Q

What may cause infantile amnesia?

A

The brain regions that are involved with the encoding of episodic memories may still be immature in the first few years of our lives.

94
Q

What is the concept of memory construction.

A

The idea that we construct our memories. We join bits of information together in a way that makes sense to us. We believe these memories are accurate, but often this isn’t the case.

95
Q

Explain Bartlett’s study.

A

He told a story from the 18th century to a group of 20th century British citizens. When they were asked to recall the story a day later the participants adapted the story in a way that made more sense to them. The story changed even more when they left the interval to grow.

96
Q

What are Bartlett’s ideas about memory and schema?

A

People have generalised ideas about how events happen - these are schema. These schema can distort our memories as we being to retrieve our memories in ways make sense to us and that conform and to our existing schema.

97
Q

What is the misinformation effect?

A

A memory can be distorted by misleading post-event information. In other words, information that we are exposed to after the events may construct memories.

98
Q

Explain Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) research

A

They showed people a video of a car crash and asked them to estimate the speed the cars were travelling when they ‘contacted, hit, bumped, collided, smashed’ each other. The verb they were asked with changed the speed they judged the cars to be travelling. Contacted was 31 mph, smashed was 41 mph. When they were asked if they saw smashed glass (false info), those in the smashed condition were more likely to report glass smashing. Suggests that leading questions can have an effect on the retrieval of EWT

99
Q

What is source confusion?

A

We have a tendency to recognise or recall something as familiar but we forget where we encountered it. For example, when witnesses are shown images of people who appear in a suspect line-up, and although they are all innocent, the person imaged in the photo may be picked because they recognise them. Even if they can’t remember they recognise them from the photo and not the crime scene.

100
Q

Explain the problem with children as eye witnesses.

A

Their memory’s are more susceptible then older people’s. Can be easily coerced into withholding the truth. For example, children often initially deny being abused, yet after questioning from therapists and police they may then confess - however, was this a false allegation or were they just reluctant to open up the first time around.

101
Q

Children are most accurate when they can describe the event in their own words (free recall). What should people who question them not do? There are two things

A
  • Use closed questions

- Use leading questions

102
Q

Name the three different types of false confessions and expand on each.

A
  • Voluntary false confessions - these are confessions to gain attention or due to some pathological reason
  • Compliant false allegations - may confess to stop something or get something, like interrogation, food, sleep
  • Internalised false confessions - confess because they truly believe they committed the crime
103
Q

What can influence our schema?

A

Culture. Individualistic culture - self-identity based on individual’s own attributes. Collectivistic culture - self-identity defined by ties to family and other social groups. Due to the differences in our schema, the construction of our memories will be different.

104
Q

Explain Wang’s study - culture and first memories

A

Questioned students from Harvard and Beijing on their earliest memories. Americans more likely to recall an event focused on individual experience. Chinese more likely to recall an event involving family/neighbourhood activity.

105
Q

Where in the brain does the sensory and working memory situate?

A

In the frontal lobes, particularly the pre-frontal cortex

106
Q

Explain the hippocampus’s role in memory.

A

HM’s case suggests that LTM memory isn’t stored hre but formed here. Memory consolidation occurs here - the binding together of different components of an experience.

107
Q

Explain what memory consolidation is.

A

The hypothetical and gradual binding process.

108
Q

Explain the thalamus’s role in memory.

A

Damage here can impair encoding of new memories and retrieval of new ones.

109
Q

Explain the amygdala’s role in memory.

A

It encodes emotionally arousing events . Damage here reduces the advantage that arousing memories are remembered more

110
Q

What part of the brain is procedural memory linked to?

A

The cerebellum.

Mind and Behaviour (7 decks)

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