Lifespan Development II Flashcards
Explain Bowlby’s 44 thieves study
- looked at link between thieves delinquency and their psychopathology and their environmental upbringing
- the thieves were 5-17, and all had average IQs and socioeconomic levels
- 17/44 thieves had experienced prolonged maternal deprivation
- of the remaining thieves (25), 17 had hostile mothers and 5 had hostile fathers
- he found that maternal deprivation was the strongest predictor among the 44 for more serious thieving behaviour
- maternal deprivation can lead to maladjusted behaviour
How can infants be investigated if they can’t talk?
- Researchers observe infant’s facial expressions, vocalisations and other behaviours to infer their emotions
What feelings grow as self-awareness does too?
Envy, empathy and embarassment
When do infants begin to understand the riles they are supposed to follow and also display guilt
Age 2
Define emotional regulation
The process by which we evaluate and modify our emotional reactions
Give examples of emotional regulation that infants show.
Babies understand how to soothe themselves, for example, they suck their thumb or cling to parents. Toddlers reduce stress by finding their caregiver or clinging to a doll
Explain what emotional competence is
Individuals emotional expressiveness and their emotional regulation ability
What does an individuals’ emotional competence influence?
- their social behaviour and likeabilty - children who can’t control their anger or frequently display sadness will be less popular
Explain Field, Woodson, Greenberg and Cohen’s findings (1982)
newborns imitate emotional expressions they have observed in others
Explain what social referencing is.
The process by which infants and children use the emotional response of others to guide their actions
Which study supplied evidence for social referencing
Sorce, Emde, Campos and Kilneet (1985) -
- placed a virtual cliff in front of babies
- mother other side adopting happy, encouraging face or a fearful expression
- happy face = babies are more likely to cross over
- Fearful face = almost no babies attempted to cross
Explain temperarment
A biologically based general style of reacting emotionally and behaviourally to the environment
Explain Thomas and Chess’s research (1977) on temperament
parents were asked to describe their childrens’ behaviour and most infants fit into one of three classification:
- easy infants: eat and sleep on schedule, playful and adaptive
- difficult infants: irritable, fussy eaters and sleepers, reacted negatively to new situations
- slow-to-warm-up infants: least active and mildly negative in new situations, but will slowly adapt
Of the infant classifications found by Thomas and Chess (1977), which were most likely to develop emotional and behaviour problems
Difficult infants
What is a disadvantage of Thomas and CHess’s research
Some people believe that temperament is only moderately stable during infancy
What is an inhibited infant?
They are quiet and shy, cry and withdraw when exposed to unfamiliar stimuli (including people). This represents 20-25% of infants
What is an uninhibited infant?
Social, verbal and spontaneous infants
What were highly inhibited and highly uninhibited 1 or 2 year olds like when they were 7 years old?
Their personalities were likely to be the same
Can childhood personality continue into adulthood? Is there a piece of research that you can describe which suggests so?
Yes, this seems to be a trend. Research shows that inhibited boys at ages 8-12 were more likely to delay marriage and fatherhood and show reluctance to entering new social relationships. Additionally, inhibited girls are more likely to grow up and leave work and become housewives, or drop out of uni
What does Erikson’s psychological theory propose and name the 8 stages.
Erikson believes personality develops through tacking 8 psychological stages, these stages are always present but they become especially important at specific ages- basic trust vs basic mistrust, autonomy vs shame and doubt, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs role confusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs stagnation, integrity vs despair. Successively resolving each crisis helps the individual to meet the next.
What is the psychological stage that occurs in the first year and what does it involve?
Basic trust vs basic mistrust - here we develop either a basic trust or basic mistrust of the world based on how well our needs are met and how much love and support we receive
What is the psychological stage that occurs in years 1-2 and what does it involve?
Autonomy vs shame & doubt - here toddlers begin to try and exercise their individuality. Children may not later have the courage to try and exercise their independence if their parents are overly harsh and restrictive during this time. For example, toilet training.
What is the psychological stage that occurs in years 3-5 and what does it involve?
Initiative vs guilt - at this age children are curious about the world. They will develop a sense of initiative if they are allowed their freedom and if their questions are answered, but if they are held back or punished for their curiosity then they may develop guilt and suppress their curiosities.
What is the psychological stage that occurs in years 6 to puberty and what does it involve?
industry vs inferiority - the childs’ life expands to school and peer activities. Here children who experience pride and encouragement in mastering tasks develop a drive to achieve (industry). However, children who experience repeated failure or have lack of praise may develop and sense of inferiority.
Why do babies have a innate predisposition to learn about the world from others?
Because they have a preference for looking at faces (right in their eyes) and social situations.
What are important early social interactions? What is a study that looks into this?
Imitation behaviour. Meltzoff and Moore - newborns imitate a range of non-emotional facial gestures
What is imprinting?
A sudden biologically primed form of attachment. It occurs in some bird and mammal species. Often involves a critical period
What is attachment?
A strong emotional bond that develops between children and their primary caregivers
Is there a critical period for attachment or is it just sensitive?
There is a sensitive period. This is the first few years - this is when we can form a strong bond easiest. It is harder to form attachment later in the childhood or adulthood but it isnt impossible
What did people originally believe was the reason infants bonded with their mothers?
The food provided by the mother as this satisfied the infants need for nourishment.
Describe Harlow’s study
He separated monkeys from their mothers and raised them in isolating cages, with two ‘surrogate mothers’. One mother was bare wire with feeding bottle and the other was a cloth covered wire mother. The monkeys became attached to the cloth mother. When they were exposed to frightening stimuli they would cling to it and even tried to feed whilst still in contact with the cloth mother. This suggests that contact comfort was more important than food in the encouragement of attachment.
Explain Bowlby’s thoughts on attachment.
He believed that attachment develops in 5 different phases:
- indiscriminate attachment
- discriminatory attachment
- specific attachment
- goal-corrected attachment
- lessening of attachment
What phase of Bowlby’s theory of attachment occurs at 0-3m and what does it involve?
The indiscriminate attachment behaviour. Infants are responsive to anybody in their environment - equally happy with stranger as with primary caregivers. These behaviour encourage care-giving behaviours from adults
What phase of Bowlby’s theory of attachment occurs at 3-7m and what does it involve?
Discriminatory attachment behaviour. Infants direct their attachment behaviour towards caregivers more but they are still happy to be around strangers. At 6-7m children develop stranger anxiety.
What is stranger anxiety?
Distress over contact with unfamiliar people
What phase of Bowlby’s theory of attachment occurs at 7/8m- 3yrs and what does it involve?
Specific attachment behaviour. Infants have meaningful attachments to specific caregivers. These caregivers become a secure base which the infant uses to explore their environment.
What phase of Bowlby’s theory of attachment occurs at 3yrs to school age and what does it involve?
Infants begin considering caregivers’ needs. For example, they can wait if they see their caregiver is busy. Here the attachment relationship becomes more of a partnership.
What phase of Bowlby’s theory of attachment occurs at school age and what does it involve?
At this phase child and caregiver spend significant amounts of time away from each other. There is a trust that their caregiver will be there when they need them rather than the constant proximity
What is separation anxiety?
Distress over being separated from a primary caregiver.
What is the strange situation?
A standardised procedure for examining infant attachment. Also examines reactions to strangers and separation from their caregiver. Infants are observed and then classified into an attachment type
What are the different attachment types?
Secure attachment, anxious-avoidant attachment, anxious-resistant attachment, disorganised attachment
What is secure attachment?
66% of infants are classified here. Infants here use their mother as a secure base and are distressed on separation, but are easily comforted at reunion
What is anxious-avoidant attachment?
20% infants classified here. Infants here show few signs of attachment, they rarely cry when separated and don’t seek contact after return
What is anxious-resistant attachment?
10-15% of infants classified here. Infants here are fearful of mother when present but demanding of her attention. Very distressed when separated but resist attempts of contact and angry after return
What is disorganised attachment?
5-10% of infants are classified here. Infants are apprehensive of attachment figure, disorientated response to separation and return
Explain the still-face paradigm.
An infant is presented with a situation in which their parents looks at them without moving their face. Studies have shown that the more infants try to produce responses and show positive emotions during this period are more likely to have secure attachment with their caregiver at 12m.
What are securely attached children better adjusted for?
They are better adjusted socially and will encourage compassion into adulthood
What happened when Harlow returned the monkeys to their coloney after 6m? And what does this suggest?
They were either indifferent, terrified or aggressive - some became mothers and were highly abusive to their first borns. This suggests that upbringing without interactive caregiver produced long-term social impairment
Explain Victor’s symptoms from growing up in isolation to humans
He was severely impaired with limited recovery after integration to society
Explain the Czech twins case.
From 18m they lived in isolation - they were discovered at 7yrs and were socially and emotionally retarded. They went on to become happy, sociable and firmly attached to their foster family. They became well-adjusted adults
Compare the cases of Victor and the Czech twins and their recovery
Perhaps the Czech twins showed better recovery as they had each other as company and also they were discovered at an earlier age so neural plasticity was greater (Victor discovered at 12, twins found at 7)
Briefly explain the Romanian orphan studies
100,000 infants and children were orphans in squalid ad neglectful conditions. After being adopted 1/3 became securely attached.
What were the two dimensions that Baumrind identified in parental behaviour?
- warmth vs hostility
- restrictiveness vs permissiveness
What is an authoritative parent?
Restrictive but warm - demanding but caring, good child-parent communication
What is an authoritarian parent?
Exert control (restrictiveness) but do so in a cold, unresponsive or rejecting relationship (hostile).
What is an indulgent parent?
Warm, caring relationships with their children but do not provide the guidance and discipline that help children learn responsibility and care for others (permissive and warm).
What is a neglectful parent?
Provide neither warmth or guidance - indifferent and uninvolved with child (hostile and permissive)
What child type do authoritative parents create?
A friendly child. They are cheerful, cooperative, high energy levels, self-reliant and self-resistant
What child type do authoritarian parents create?
A conflicted-irritable child. Unhappy, aimless, fearful, easily annoyed, passively hostile, deceitful and stressed
What child type do indulgent parents create?
An impulsive-aggressive child. They are aggressive, impulsive, domineering, no self-control and aimless
What child type do neglectful parents create?
A neglected child. They are moody, aggressive, impulsive, low self-esteem, delinquency, precocious sexuality
Which is the most positive parenting style?
Authoritative
What is the most negative parenting style?
Neglectful
Define gender identity
Sense of ‘femaleness’ or ‘maleness’ that becomes a central aspect of an individual’s personal identity
When do basic gender identity develop? What can they do here? What is wrong with their gender concept at this point?
2-3 years - here they can label themselves as a boy or girl, but the concept of gender is still fragile, for example, may believe a boy wearing a dress is a girl and that a girl can grow up to be a man.
When does gender constancy develop?
6-7 years
What is gender constancy?
The understanding that being male or female is a permanent part of a person.
What are also adopted when gender identity develops?
Gender role stereotypes
What are gender role stereotypes?
Characteristics and behaviours that are deemed ‘appropriate’ for boys and girls to posses. Taught through socialisation. We usually internalise these as part of our identity. Also learnt through observation and imitation
What is gender typing?
Treating others differently based on whether they are male or female. For example, fathers treat their 12m sons and daughters differently (more physical and verbal prohibition to their sons, and steer sons away from typically feminine activities)
What happens by the age of 7 or 8 in gender behaviour? But what happens during secondary school age?
Stereotyped thinking is firmly in place. Then at secondary school, they become more flexible in their thinking. Some believe in androgynity
What is androgynous gender identity?
Traditional masculine and feminine traits can be blended into a single person - equal fem and masc characterisitcs
What are peers?
People who you know who are about the same age as yourself
Explain Harris’s suggestions
Peer group have a role as, or more, important as parents in our social development
What do adoption studies suggest about peer influence?
The home environment of the two adoptees is the same but often children strikingly different - could be due to non-shared environment, which is often peers
What is the influence of the media on social development?
Most media types emphasise culturally held stereotypes
What are the three types of moral reasoning according to Kohlberg?
- pre-conventional moral reasoning
- conventional moral reasoning
- post-conventional moral reasoning
The progress of moral development depends on cognitive ability
What is pre-conventional moral reasoning?
Based on anticipated punishments or rewards
What is conventional moral reasoning?
Based on conformity to social expectations, laws and duties
What is post-conventional moral reasoning?
Based on well thought out, general moral principles
What is adolescence
The period of development and gradual transition between childhood and adulthood. It is largely an invention since the industrial rev after intro of new tech and need for schooling. It is different from puberty. Broader social construct than puberty
What was the transition to adulthood in pre-industrial societies?
Biological maturity, for example, childbearing
What is puberty?
A period of rapid maturation in which the person becomes capable of sexual reproduction. Biologically defined
What is the stage of Erikson’s stages that occurs during adolescence? And how can the crisis be resolved and what does this lead to?
Identity vs role confusion (12-19yrs). the identity crisis can be resolved positively which leads to a stable sense of identity, or it can end negatively which leads to confusion about the individual’s idnetity and values
What different identities did Marcia identify?
- identity diffusion
- foreclosure
- moratorium
- identity achievement
What is identity diffusion?
Not yet gone through crisis - unconcerned and cynical about identity and lack clear set of valies
What is foreclosure?
Not yet gone through crisis - they have already decided on identity and values before going through crisis
What is moratorium?
Want to establish identity and consistent values but currently experiences a crisis but have not yet resolved it
What is identity achievement?
Successfully emerged from the identity crisis with a clear identity and a coherent set of values
Which identities are most young adults in?
identity diffusion or foreclosure
How many individuals have resolved the identity crisis by early adulthood?
ABout 50%
What changes about adolescent friendships in comparison to childhood friendships?
They are more intimate - greater sharing of problems
What emotional changes occur during adolescence?
- increasing experiences of negative emotions
- decreasing experiences of positive emotions
- vulnerable stage for onset of psychiatric disorders
What is Eriksons’s stage during the years 20-30?
Intimacy vs isolation. Ability to open yourself up to another person and form close relationships - here many form close adult friendships, fall in love and marry
What is Eriksons’s stage during the years 40-64 ?
Generativity vs stagnation. Want to achieve generativity by doing something with their life (careers, children, involvement in activities)
What is Eriksons’s stage during the years 65+?
Integrity vs despair. Review life here and evaluate its meaning - if earlier conflicts resolved then a person experiences integrity (a sense of completeness and fulfilment). Adults who have not achieved this may feel despair and regret
Why may an individual have lower well-being during retirement, even though the majority become satisfied?
Involuntary retirement (due to lay-off or mandatory retirement) and those who have a storng work ethic
