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Mind and Behaviour > Learning > Flashcards

Learning Flashcards

1
Q

Define learning

A

A process by which experience produces an enduring and adaptive change in an organism’s behaviour

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2
Q

Learning represents a process of personal adaptation - true or false?

A

True

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3
Q

What are the three things that every organism must learn?

A
  1. Which events are and aren’t important for their survival
  2. Which stimuli signal an important event is about to occur
  3. Whether its response will produce positive or negative consequence
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4
Q

Define species adaptation

A

Environmental conditions faced by each species help shape that species’ biological

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5
Q

Define natural selection

A

Genetically based characteristics that enhance a species ability to adapt to its environment, and this to survive and reproduce - these characteristics are more likely to be passed on to the next generation. Overtime these characteristics become a part of the species’ nature

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6
Q

Define personal adaptation

A

how an organism’s behaviour changes in response to environmental stimuli encountered during its lifetime

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7
Q

What is habituation?

A

A decrease in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus. E.g. a boiler makes a loud noise, this worries you at first but nothing comes of it so each time the noise happens you get less and less startled by it, before normalising it. It allows organisms to conserve energy.

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8
Q

What is sensitisation?

A

An increase in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus. E.g. the boiler starts making a louder and louder, destructive noise - you now become increasingly aware of it

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9
Q

Explain Groves and Thompson’s theory of what determines sensitisation

A

In situations where the stimulus creates more arousal then sensitisation wins, BUT if the stimulus creates less arousal then habituation wins.

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10
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

When an organism learns to associate two stimuli, such that one stimuli comes to elicit a response that was originally elicited by the other stimulus. E.g. associating a song with a pleasant event and immediately being reminded of the happy feeling when hearing the song in the future

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11
Q

Explain Pavlov and his dogs.

A

He noticed that the dogs would start to salivate before the food was even presented to them, often at the footsteps of the experimenter. So he paired the bell with feeding. After 12 trials the dogs would salivate at the sound of the bell without food. NS = bell. UCR = salivation. UCS = food. CS = bell after several trials. CR = salivation.

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12
Q

Define the neutral stimulus

A

A stimulus which initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention

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13
Q

Define the unconditioned stimulus

A

A stimulus that produces a reflexive or innate response (UCR) without prior learning

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14
Q

Define the unconditioned response

A

A reflexive or innate response that is produced by a stimulus (UCS) without prior learning

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15
Q

Define the conditioned stimulus

A

A stimulus that, through association with a UCS, comes to elicit a conditioned response

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16
Q

Define the conditioned response

A

A response produced by a conditioned stimulus

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17
Q

What is acquisition?

A

The period when a response is being learned

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18
Q

Name 4 things that make conditioning strongest

A
  1. There are repeated CS_UCS pairings
  2. The UCS is more intense
  3. The sequence involves forward pairing
  4. The time interval between CS and UCS is short
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19
Q

What is forward short-delay pairing?

A

CS appears first and is still present when UCS appears

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20
Q

What is forward trace pairing?

A

CS appears, then disappears, the UCS is then usually presented 2-3 seconds later (the longer the gap, the weaker the conditioning)

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21
Q

What is simultaneous pairing?

A

Cs and UCS paired at the same time

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22
Q

What is backward pairing?

A

Cs is presented after the UCS

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23
Q

What is extinction?

A

A process by which the CS is presented without the UCS repeatedly, causing the CR to weaken and eventually disappear. Each occurrence of the CS without the UCS is called an extinction period.

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24
Q

Why is extinction so important?

A

For survival we must be able to eliminated a CR when it is no longer appropiate

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25
Q

What is spontaneous recovery?

A

Reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a rest period and with new learning trials

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26
Q

What is stimulus generalisation

A

Stimuli similar to initial CS produces a CR

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27
Q

Why is stimulus generalisation so important?

A

It has adaptive functions. If an animal didn’t generalise the association of being attacked from the bushes by a particular animal with the rustling to the leaves to other animals that could attack, then the animal may not survive.

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28
Q

What is discrimination?

A

When the CR occurs to one stimulus but not others

29
Q

Define high-order conditioning

A

A neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being paired with an already established CS. Although, it generally produces a CR that is weaker and extinguishes quicker than the original CR

30
Q

What did Watson and Rayner do?

A

They classically conditioned an 11-month old boy to fear a white rat. They did this by pairing the whacking of a hammer (UCS) with a white rat (NS).

31
Q

What other stimuli did Little Albert generalise his fear to?

A

Rabbit, dogs and a Santa Claus mask.

32
Q

What are exposure therapies?

A

When a patient is exposed to a stimulus (CS) that arouses an anxiety response (like fear) without the presence of the UCS - this allows extinction to occur.

33
Q

What is systematic desensitisation?

A

A form of exposure therapy. Patients learn muscle-relaxation techniques and they are then gradually exposed to their fear-provoking stimulus.

34
Q

What is flooding therapy?

A

A form of exposure therapy. When individuals are fully immersed in a situation with their phobic stimulus.

35
Q

Classical conditioning influences what attracts and pleasurably arouses us - true or false?

A

True

36
Q

What is aversion therapy?

A

It attempts to condition an aversion to a stimulus that triggers unwanted behaviour by pairing it with a noxious UCS

37
Q

Give two examples of aversion therapy

A
  • preventing biting nails. Painting nails with an unpleasant tasting substance
  • ‘curing’ homosexuality. Electric shock whenever shown a picture of individual of the same-sex
38
Q

What can classical conditioning not explain that operant conditioning can?

A

Classical conditioning can’t explain how we learn new patterns of behaviour, instead an already existing response is transferred to a new stimulus. CC can’t explain voluntary behaviours.

39
Q

Explain Thorndike’s work.

A

He was the first to develop the principles of OC. He developed a ‘puzzle box’ which was a box with a string/lever inside that could open the box. He placed a hungry cat inside with food outside. By chance, the cat would eventually step on the lever. The cat’s performance would gradually improve with each trial. Eventually, the cat would immediately step on the lever when shut in the box.

40
Q

What is the law of effect?

A

A response followed by a satisfying consequence will become likely to be repeated and a response followed by an annoying consequence will become less likely to be repeated.

41
Q

Define operant conditioning.

A

A type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by the consequences of the behaviour.

42
Q

What is the Skinner’s box?

A

A box which, when a lever is pressed, a food pellet is released.

43
Q

Explain Skinner’s rats.

A

Rats were placed in the Skinner’s box. They would press a lever and get food. He found that the number of presses from the rats would increase overtime.

44
Q

What is reinforcement?

A

When a response is strengthened by an outcome that follows it. This causes an increase in the frequency of this behaviour. The stimulus that increases behaviour is called the reinforcer.

45
Q

What is punishment?

A

Occurs when a response is weakened by the outcomes that follow it. This causes a decrease in the frequency of the behaviour. The stimulus that decreases behaviour is called the punisher.

46
Q

Explain the three part contingency.

A
  1. Antecedents – stimuli that are present before a behaviour occurs e.g. saying sit to a dog
  2. Behaviour – the behaviour is emitted e.g. the dog will either sit or not sit
  3. Consequence – the consequence that follows the behaviour e.g. sit = treat, no sit = ‘bad dog’
47
Q

What is a discriminative stimulus?

A

A signal that a particular response will now produce certain consequences. E.g. Skinner’s rats - a lit light now means that this is the only time when food can be dispensed. Soon the rat will realise to only press the lever when the light is lit.

48
Q

What is positive reinforcement?

A

Occurs when a response is strengthened by the subsequent presentation of a stimulus. E.g. rat receives the pellet.

49
Q

What are the two types of reinforcers?

A
  1. Primary reinforcer – stimuli that an organism naturally finds reinforcing because it satisfies biological needs. E.g. food, water
  2. Secondary reinforcer – stimuli that have reinforcing properties through their association with primary reinforcers. E.g. caregivers providing food leads to attachment
50
Q

What is negative reinforcement?

A

A response is strengthened by the subsequent removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus. In other words, something that increases the chance of a behaviour being repeated by taking something away. E.g. good behaviour rewarded with the removal of detention/homework.

51
Q

What is operant extinction?

A

The weakening and eventual disappearance of a response because it is no longer reinforced.

52
Q

What is positive punishment/aversive punishment/ punishment by application?

A

A response is weakened by the subsequent presentation of a stimulus

53
Q

What is negative punishment or response cost?

A

A response is weakened by the subsequent removal of a positive stimulus

54
Q

What are the limitations of positive and negative punishment?

A
  • They suppress the behaviour but the organism does not forget how to perform the response – therefore, positive reinforcement must be used to strengthen the desirable alternative behaviour
  • Punishment may cause negative emotions, like fear and anger, which may cause a dislike or avoidance of the person delivering the punishment
55
Q

What is shaping?

A

Involves reinforcing successive approximations towards a final response. For example, lazy mark who just sits in the sand pit - they want him to play on the monkey bars. But they know this isn’t just going to happen so they reward each little step towards playing with the monkey bars.

56
Q

What is chaining?

A

It is used to develop a sequence of responses by reinforcing each response with the opportunity to perform the next response. For example, Skinner’s rats- the rat has learned to press the lever when the light is on and next a bell is placed near the lever, which when rung turns the light on - soon the rat will learn to ring the bell to turn the light on and get fed.

57
Q

What is operant generalisation?

A

An operant response occurs to a new antecedent stimulus or situation that is similar to the original one. For example, a dog may sit for somebody other than the individual who taught them that response.

58
Q

What is operant discrimination?

A

An operant response will occur to one antecedent stimulus but not to another. For example, children learn to raid the biscuit tin when parents are absent

59
Q

What does an immediate consequence do?

A

In general, immediate consequences after a behaviour have stronger effects than when a consequence is delayed. This can explain chronic drug users because the immediate consequences beat the delayed benefits of not using the drug.

60
Q

What is continuous reinforcement?

A

When every response of a particular type is reinforced. E.g. food pellet for every press of the lever

61
Q

What is partial (intermittent) reinforcement?

A

Only a portion of the responses of a particular type are reinforced.

62
Q

Explain the ratio versus interval of partial reinforcement

A
  • Ratio – a certain percentage of responses are reinforced. So, the more responses, the more reinforcement.
  • Interval – a certain amount of time must pass between reinforcements, regardless of how often the behaviour occurs
63
Q

Explain the fixed versus variable of partial reinforcement

A
  • Fixed – reinforcement always occurs after a fixed number of responses or after a fixed time interval
  • Variable – required number of responses or time interval varies at random around an average
64
Q

Which type of reinforcement schedule (continuous or partial) produces more rapid learning?

A

Continuous reinforcement. The association between consequence and behaviour is easier to perceive as every response is being reinforced, unlike partial reinforcement schedules.

65
Q

Which type of reinforcement schedule (continuous or partial) encourage quicker extinguishing.

A

Continuous reinforcement. When reinforcer is removed there is a sudden change between reinforcement on every trial and then none. When reinforcement has been more unpredictable with partial reinforcement schedules then it takes longer to learn that the consequence has gone forever.

66
Q

What is escape conditioning?

A

The organism learns a response to terminate an averse stimulus. E.g. put clothes on when we are cold. These behaviours are acquired and maintained through negative reinforcement

67
Q

What is avoidance conditioning?

A

The organism learns a response to avoid an averse stimulus. E.g. we put on suncream to prevent sunburn

68
Q

What is the two-factor theory of avoidance learning?

A

Both classical and operant conditioning are involved in avoidance learning. For example, Michelle who is now scared of cars after crash - The fear was classically conditioned, now she avoids cars and this is negatively reinforced (so OC) but fear reduction.

Mind and Behaviour (7 decks)

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