Social Psychology Yr2 Sem2 Flashcards

Question

What decade was classed as the decade of the brain? (Myers, Abell, Sani, 2014: chapter 1 key reading)

Answer 1

Understanding how the brain influences behaviour

Answer 2

- Mirror neurons are in the premotor cortex - Active when watching someone perform an action

Answer 3

From the 16th century onwards

Answer 4

Id - Unconscious containing all the urges and impulses (libido) and only responds to the pleasure principle Ego - Modified by the influence of the external world: Ego is what is in control and what the id and superego go through Superego - Values and morals which are learned from parents and others (Develops between 3&5 - the phallic stage). Voice of doing what's right. Controls the Id's impulses: has the conscience which is our inner voice and it may punish the ego with feelings of guilt. It contains our ideal self

Answer 5

Defined by the groups you're in for example, British, female, lesbian etc.

Answer 6

At 18 months

Answer 7

The anterior cingulate gyrus

Answer 8

Schematic attribute - Give information about a schematic feature or schematic diagram Aschematic attribute - Doesn't fit in with a schema

Answer 9

Three types of self schema: Actual self Ideal self Ought self Our goal motivated to reduce discrepancies between the actual-ideal (dejection), and actual-ought (agitation) schemas. We engage in self-regulation in order to motivate change.

Answer 10

The idea that fulfillment occurs in the afterlife was replaced by the idea that you should actively peruse personal fulfillment in this life.

Answer 11

People were increasingly seen as units of production that moved from place to place to work and had a portable personal identity that was not locked into static social structures such as the extended family.

Answer 12

People felt that they could organise and construct different, better, identities and lives for themselves by overthrowing orthodox value systems and oppressive regimes (french and american revolutions)

Answer 13

Freud's theory of the human mind crystallised the notion that the self was unfathomable because it was in the depths of the unconscious. - people possess unconscious thoughts and feelings

Answer 14

Freud believed unsocialised and libidinal impulses (the id) are repressed and kept in check by internalised societal norms (the superego)

Answer 15

Wundt's social psychology dealt with collectives such as language, religion , customs and myth which Wundt believed could not be understood in terms of the individual self. Emile Durkheim (1898) also maintained a collective perspective on the self. William Mcdougall in 'The Group Mind' argued that interactions of individuals arises a group mind. Since the late 80's there has been a revival of interest in the collective self.

Answer 16

The theory of how the self emerges from human interaction (language and gesture)

Answer 17

The self emerges and is shaped by social interaction. William James (1890) distinguished between the self as stream of consciousness ('I') and as object of perception ('me').

Answer 18

The self derived from seeing ourselves as others see us.

Answer 19

They reviewed 62 students, results showed that they didn't view themselves as other viewed them but viewed themselves how they thought others viewed them.

Answer 20

People normally overestimate their good points, their control over events and are unrealistically optimistic.

Answer 21

The private self - your private thoughts, feelings and attitudes The public self - how other people see you, your public image Private self awareness makes you want to match your behaviour to your internalised standards - public is about presenting yourself in a positive light outwards.

Answer 22

Deindividuation - Being too self-aware can be stressful so people may avoid it by engaging in antisocial behaviours such as drinking excessive alcohol or suicide.

Answer 23

We use self-schemas which are stored in more complex ways in context specific nodes

Answer 24

There is no particular part however, experience of self emerges from brain activity across the medial prefrontal and the medial precuneus cortex.

Answer 25

Because it can cause extreme mood-swings if someone believes the are outstanding at one thing and awful at another things.

Answer 26

Markus and Nurius (1986) For example, future selves of what we would like to become and what we fear to become

Answer 27

Consequences of making comparisons between actual-ideal and actual-ought self showing self-discrepancies. Self-discrepancies make emotionally vulnerable as when we fail to resolve an ideal-actual discrepancy, it leaves us feeling dejected and when we fail to solve and actual-ought discrepancy, we feel agitated.

Answer 28

Strategies we use to match our behaviour to an ideal or ought standard.

Answer 29

The proposal that people have two separate self-regulatory systems - promotion and prevention which are concerned with the different pursuit of goals. Promotion system - attainment of one's hopes and aspirations (ones ideals). Generates sensitivity to the presence/absence of positive events. Approach strategic means to achieve their goals. e.g. promotion-focused students would look for ways to improve their grades. Prevention system - Fulfilment of one's duties and obligations (ones oughts). Generates sensitivity to presence or absence of negative events. Avoidance strategic means to attain their goals. e.g. prevention-focused students would avoid new situations or new people and concentrate on avoiding failure.

Answer 30

Normally arises in childhood. Promotion is normally within children who are hugged and kissed a lot for behaving in a desired manner and love is withdrawn as punishment. Prevention can arise in children who are encouraged to be alert to potential dangers and punished and shouted at when behaving undesirably.

Answer 31

They measured self-discrepancy by comparing attributes of the actual self with either the ideal or the ought self. Students answered questionnaires and the researchers identified students who were high in both discrepancies or low in both. After several week, students participated in an experiment in which emotions that reflected agitations or dejection were measured before and after the priming procedure. For the ideal , they were asked to discuss their and their parents hopes for them. For the ought, they discussed theirs and their parents duties and obligations for them. Identified that an actual-ideal discrepancy would lead to feelings of dejection.

Answer 32

We make attributions for our own behaviour and there is no difference between self-attributions and others-attributions

Answer 33

When someone is rewarded for their performance, it can lead to lower interest in the activity. It occurs when the introduction of an extrinsic reward weakens the strong intrinsic motivation that was the key to the person’s original high performance.

Answer 34

Comparing our opinions and behaviours with others in order to establish the socially correct way of thinking and behaving. When it comes to performance we compare with people who are worse than us to give us a positive self concept (Wills, 1981)

Answer 35

Deal with social-comparison by downplaying our similarity with the person or withdraw the relationship with that person.

Answer 36

Stands for 'Basking In Reflected Glory'. This is when people or groups name-drop to link themselves with desirable people to create a better impression of themselves.

Answer 37

Social Identity - Defines self in terms of group memberships, collective self. Personal Identity - Defines self in terms of idiosyncratic traits and close and personal relationships.

Answer 38

Individual self - Based on personal traits that differentiates the self from others. Relational self - Based on connection and role relationships with significant others. Collective self - Based on group membership that differentiates 'us' from 'them'.

Answer 39

Group-based social identities which is defining oneself as part of a group membership.

Answer 40

Provides us with almost an autobiography that weaves our various identities and selves together into a whole person.

Answer 41

Tendency to attribute our own behaviour externally and others behaviours internally.

Answer 42

Theory of group membership and intergroup relations based on self-categorisation, social comparison and a construction of a shared self-definition in terms of in-group defining properties.

Answer 43

How the process of categorising oneself as a group member produces social identity and group and intergroup behaviours.

Answer 44

Cognitive representation of the typical defining features of a category.

Answer 45

Category prototypes accentuate the differences and similarities between groups.

Answer 46

People's perceptions of themselves and others become depersonalised.

Answer 47

Self-assessment motivates pursuit of valid information about self. (Trope., 1986) Self-verification seeks information that is consistent with our own self-image. (Swann., 1987) Self enhancement motivates pursuit of information that makes us look good. (Kunda., 1990)

Answer 48

People reduce the threat to their self-concept by focussing non and affirming their competence in some other area.

Answer 49

Publicly stating that something may be holding you back for anticipated failure e.g. saying you're hungover before an exam.

Answer 50

Theory that the most fundamental human motivation is to reduce the terror of the inevitability of death. Self-esteem takes away from that fear because it distract people to feel positive about life and immortal.

Answer 51

People play different roles depending on who they are around to impress them.

Answer 52

Carefully controlling how we present ourselves

Answer 53

Strategic self-monitoring: High self-monitors use strategic because they shape their behaviour to project the impression that feel their audience or situations demands. Expressive self-monitoring: Low self-monitors adapt this way because their behaviour is less responsive to changing contextual demands.

Answer 54

Self promotion - Trying to persuade others that you are competent. Ingratiation - Trying to get others to like you. Intimidation - Trying to get others to think that you are dangerous. Exemplification - Trying to get others to regard you as a morally respectable individual. Supplication - Trying to get others to take pity on you as helpless and needy.

Answer 55

An effort to act in a particular way which gives a desirable impression of ourselves.

Answer 56

Western Europe, North America, Australasia = individualistic. Southern Europe, Latin America, Asia, and Africa = collectivist.

Answer 57

An organisation of beliefs, feelings, and behavioural tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups, events or symbols.

Answer 58

1920s - 1930s: Concentration on attitude measurement and how these measurements related to behaviour. 1960s-1960s: Focus on the dynamics of change in a person's attitudes. 1980s-1990s: Focus on the cognitive and social structure and function of attitudes and attitude systems.

Answer 59

The latin aptus which means 'fit and ready for action'.

Answer 60

Thurstone (1931): Defined attitude as the affect for or against psychological object. Edwards (1957): the degree of positive or negative affect associated with some psychological object/ An attitude consists of affect towards or evaluation of the object

Answer 61

Elaborated on Thurstone's affect for or against psychological object saying an attitude consists of a mental readiness to act. It is a predisposition which has a relatively consistent influence on how we decide what is good or bad, desirable or undesirable. INTROSPECTIVE

Answer 62

An attitude consists of cognitive, affective and behaviour components. It has an ancient philosophy including thought, feeling, and action as basics for human experience. Popular in the 1960s (Krech, Cruthfield and Ballachey, 1962; Rosenberg and Hovland, 1960; Himmelfarb and Eagly, 1974; Ostrom, 1968; Breckler, 1984)

Answer 63

Relatively permanent: persist across time and situations Limited to SOCIALLY SIGNIFICANT events or objects Generalisable

Answer 64

Various kinds of attitude each serving a different function - Knowledge - Instrumentally (means to an end or goal) - Ego defence (protecting one's self esteem) - Value expressiveness (Allowing people to display those values that uniquely identify and define them)

Answer 65

Attitude saves cognitive energy as we don't have to figure out from scratch how we should relate to the object or situation.

Answer 66

The main function is a utilitarian one: that of object appraisal.

Answer 67

In the late 1950s and 1960s they dominated social psychology and are a group of attitude theories that emphasise that people try to maintain internal consistency, order and agreement among their various cognitions. Argues that people are motivated to change contradictory beliefs so that the belief system is in harmony.

Answer 68

Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort that results from holding two conflicting beliefs, values, or attitudes. People tend to seek consistency in their attitudes and perceptions, so this conflict causes unpleasant feelings of unease or discomfort.

Answer 69

Focuses on the P-O-X unit of cognitive field. P - Person O - Other person X - Object, attitude, topic It is balanced when there are no negative relations or equal negative relations. E.g. 3 positive, 2 negative & positive If unbalanced, people may feel tense and be motivated to restore the balance.

Answer 70

Sociocognitive model defines an attitude as 'a person's evaluation of an object of thought'.

Answer 71

-An object label - rules of applying that label -An evaluation summary of object -Knowledge structure supporting evaulation

Answer 72

A person's attitudes can be estimated by averaging across the positive and negative ratings of the object.

Answer 73

Suggested that people's attitudes are underpinned by implicit and automatic judgements of which they are unaware. Less influenced by social desirability bias (how others react) Therefore, Schwarz (2000) suggested that it is a more reliable measure of a person's true attitudes.

Answer 74

Proposed a decision making strategy continuum; ranges from intuition to controlled information processing at the other end.

Answer 75

Allport - directive and organised state of readiness Anderson - outcome of algebraic calculation Devine - automatic judgement

Answer 76

Crano and Prislin (2006)

Answer 77

A small correlation between people's attitudes and reported alcohol consumption.

Answer 78

To understand the difference between prejudiced attitudes towards Chinese in general and discriminatory behaviours towards Chinese people. So went sightseeing with a Chinese couple visiting 66 hotels, caravan parks and were served in 184 restaurants and denied service once. 6 months after the trip, he sent out a questionnaire asking if they would accept Chinese people and 92% said no even though they previously accepted them in.

Answer 79

0.30 - or squared = 9% of the variability in behaviour is accounted for by attitude.

Answer 80

- How accessible an attitude is - Whether an attitude is expressed publicly - How strongly someone identifies with a group for which the attitude is normative

Answer 81

Martin FIshbein

Answer 82

Term for a general behaviour index based in an average or combination of several specific behaviours.

Answer 83

Multiple behaviours

Answer 84

Theory of relationship between attitudes and behaviour. A specific attitude that has normative support predicts an intention to act. It is mainly used to predict how individuals will behave based on their pre-existing attitudes and behavioral intentions.

Answer 85

- Subjective norm; A product of what the person thinks others believe - Attitudes towards the behaviour; A product of the person's beliefs about the target behaviour and how these beliefs are evaluated - Behavioural intention; An internal declaration to act - Behaviour; the action performed

Answer 86

A person's belief, based on past experiences and present obstacles, that is easy or difficult to perform a behaviour

Answer 87

Suggests that predicting a behaviour from an attitude measure is improved if people believe they have control over that behaviour

Answer 88

Trafimow (2000)

Answer 89

Requires the belief that the person knows what they're doing and looking for

Answer 90

The cognitive balance between perceived threat of illness and the capacity of the individual to cope with the health regime

Answer 91

- An increase in perceived severity of a health threat - The vulnerability of the individual to that threat - The perceived effectiveness of taking protective action - Self-efficacy

Answer 92

What we believe our capacity to succeed in particular tasks is

Answer 93

Threat- whether the risks outweigh the perceived positives Coping- Whether method of getting better will work and if they have the self-efficacy to do so

Answer 94

Intrinsic + extrinsic reward - severity + vulnerability = threat appraisal (PMT)

Answer 95

Response-efficacy + self-efficacy - Response cost = coping appraisal (PMT)

Answer 96

They can be accessed from memory more easily and can be expressed more quickly. They are associated with more behaviour-attitude consistency

Answer 97

24 same-sex photos were paired so one was relatively attractive and one was relatively unattractive. 5 morphs of the paired images were created and varied in attractiveness based on how much of the attractive person was used in comparison to the unattractive person. Participants formed highly accessible or less accessible attitudes. Highly accessible participants verbally rated how attractive each morph was. Less accessible participants verbally estimated the height of the morphed person. Participants were then told they would see different image of the same people and would have to quickly and accurately say if it was the same photo or a different one. High accessibility participants were slower and made more errors. This shows how a highly accessible attitude can become dysfunctional because it struggles to adjust to change and becomes stuck in time

Answer 98

Attitudes that have a strong evaluative link to situational cues are more likely to come automatically to mind from memory.

Answer 99

Powell & Fazio (1984)

Answer 100

- Attitudes are accessible - Attitudes are stable over time - Direct experience with attitude object - Frequently recording their attitudes

Answer 101

A causes B but only when the moderator variable is present

Answer 102

They are learnt through the socialisation process. Through experiences or through interaction with others

Answer 103

Repeated exposure to an object results in greater attraction to that object

Answer 104

The degree of liking an object depending if it is paired with a positive or negative stimulus.

Answer 105

A liked or disliked person/attitude object affects the evaluation of a second person and even anything associated with the stimuli. For example, Mary is at a conference and sees Peter and Paul talking who she does not know. Then she sees Mark and Paul talk - she doesn't not like Marks so she slightly more dislikes Peter (Evaluation conditioning), and Paul (Spreading attitude effect).

Answer 106

Gain knowledge of our self through self-attributions e.g.. infer our attitudes from our behaviour

Answer 107

Parents and peers Mass media/internet

Answer 108

Attitudes are measured to reflect favourability towards something whereas values are measured for their importance in guiding principles in life

Answer 109

Theoretical- Interest in problem solving/how things work Economic- Interest in econmic matters, finance, money affairs Aesthetic- Interest in arts, theatre, music Social- Concern for one's fellows, social wellfare orientation Political- Interest in political structures & power arrangements Religious- Concern with theology, afterlife, morals

Answer 110

a significant modification to a person's attitude

Answer 111

Instrumental values are the means by which we achieve our end goals. Terminal values are defined as our end goals. Examples of instrumental values include being polite, obedient, and self-controlled. Examples of terminal values include family security, national security, and salvation.

Answer 112

They are general beliefs about behaviours and goals

Answer 113

Set of systematic beliefs which has the primary function of explanation

Answer 114

Terminal values underline political ideologies

Answer 115

Machiavellianism ideology named after Machiavelli (Sixteenth century Florentine diplomat)

Answer 116

Michael Bilig (1991). Everyday thinking arises from ideological dilemmas. When there is conflict between values, it can trigger a class of attitudes between groups

Answer 117

The idea that the most fundamental motivation is to reduce terror of death. Therefore, self-esteem may be implicated in effective terror management.

Answer 118

People elaborate shared and simple understandings of their world through social interactions. (Serge Moscovici, 1983)

Answer 119

Direct experience with an attitude object informs how much that object should be liked or disliked in the future

Answer 120

An attitude measure that asks for a rating on a scale composed of opposite adjectives

Answer 121

An 11 point scale with 22 items, 2 for each point. Each items has a value ranging from favourable to unfavourable. Respondents check with the items they agree and attitude is defined as the average of their answers.

Answer 122

Respondents use a 5 point scale to show how much they agree or disagree with statements. Respondents score is added together and the answer is used as an indicator of attitude

Answer 123

- communicator (who) = SOURCE - communication (what) = MESSAGE - characteristics of the audience (to whom) = AUDIENCE

Answer 124

Tendency to with items in an attitude questionnaire. This leads to ambiguity in interpretation.

Answer 125

A scale containing favourable and unfavourable statements arranged hierarchally. Agreement with a strong statement proposes agreement with a weak statement and disagreement with a weak one implies disagreement with a strong one.

Answer 126

Guttman scale consists of a single dimension.

Answer 127

psychological tension by simultaneously having 2 opposing cognitions - people are motivated to reduce tension - change or reject one of the cognitions

Answer 128

we seek harmony in our attitudes, beliefs and behaviours we try to reduce tension

Answer 129

a message intended to change an attitude and behaviours of an audience

Answer 130

Skin resistance Heart rate Pupil dilation Cortisol level on blood or saliva

Answer 131

Through mapping facial muscle movements. E.g. people listening to a speech would make facial movements that reflected attitudes of liberal and conservative views.

Answer 132

Measuring electrical activity in the brain associated with social cognition and social psychological processes

Answer 133

Showed white participants white faces and black faces whilst measuring electrical impulses in the brain. White participants had more electrical stimuli when there were white faces shown - indicating more attention being paid to the white faces

Answer 134

Tendency to see outgroup members as all the same, and ingroup members as more differentiated.

Answer 135

By recording what people do including how they say things, non-verbal cues and the context

Answer 136

1. attention 2. comprehension 3. acceptance 4. retention A C A R

Answer 137

Observational processes that don't intrude on the processes being studies or cause the observant to act in an unnatural way.

Answer 138

Baumeister and Covington (1985)

Answer 139

A measurement technique that leads people to believe that a lie detector can monitor their emotional responses and convinces participants that they cannot hide their true attitudes

Answer 140

Bem and McConnell (1970)

Answer 141

An object label, rules, evaluative summary, knowledge structure

Answer 142

1. opinion change 2. perception change 3. affect change 4. action change O P A A

Answer 143

Unobstructive methods - assess an attitude that people are aware of but may be unwilling to reveal Implicit- assesses an attitude that people are not aware of

Answer 144

Positive ingroup and negative outgroup biases in the way that language is used

Answer 145

Fazio and colleagues used priming to explore how we make judgement more quickly when an underlying attitude is congruent with a 'correct' response

Answer 146

Activation of accessible schemas in memory that influence how we process information

Answer 147

Reaction-time test to measure attitudes - Especially unpopular attitudes that people might conceal

Answer 148

Peoples use of various strategies to get other people to view them in a positive light

Answer 149

1. expertise - experts are more persuasive / argument carries more weight with facts 2. popularity & attractiveness - make communicators more effective 3. speech rate - rapid speech makes you seem like you know what you are talking about E P S

Answer 150

'An attempt to understand and explain how thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others'

Answer 151

The process where attitudes and behaviours are influenced by real or imagined pressures of others

Answer 152

1. perceived manipulation - persuaded more when we think the message is not deliberately intended to manipulate us 2. linguistic power - powerless linguistic styles (hesitations) is less persuasive 3. fear M L F

Answer 153

Attitudinal and behavioural uniformities that define group membership and differentiate between groups

Answer 154

Superficial, public and transitory change in behaviour and expressed attitudes in response to request, coercion or group pressure. - Outward change in behaviour not internal

Answer 155

1. self-esteem - low self-esteem persuaded more easily 2. distraction - more easily persuaded 3. age - younger are more persuaded 4. high quality message D A S H

Answer 156

the audience has to pay attention to the communicator's message, understand the content, and think about what was said

Answer 157

audience's thoughts: - aroused good thoughts = accepted - aroused bad thoughts = rejected

Answer 158

most people think that they are less influenced than others by advertisements

Answer 159

Reference - Physiologically significant for peoples attitudes and behaviour in a way that we seek to behave like them or opposite to them Membership- Groups that we belong in by some objective criterion, external designation or social consensus

Answer 160

General model of social influence in which two separate processes operate - dependency on others for social approval and for information about reality

Answer 161

1. credibility (attractiveness, likeable, popular) 2. similarity

Answer 162

Compliance - external act of following commands and rules Conformity- Adjusting own internal beliefs to match those of a group

Answer 163

sender - who does the communication come from?

Answer 164

signal - what medium is used and what does the argument involve

Answer 165

receiver - who is the target

Answer 166

Reward power- Giving or promising rewards for compliance Coercive power- Give or threaten punishment for non-compliance Informational power- Targets beliefs that the influencer has more information than oneself Expert power- Targets beliefs that the influencer has more expertise and knowledge Legitimate power- Targets belief that the influencer is recognised by a recognised power structure to command and make decisions Referent power- Identification with, attraction to or respect for the source of influence

Answer 167

- predicted that an audience would pay more attention to a credible communicator and more room for attitude change when a target's opinion was more discrepant from that of the source - participants were students - asked how much sleep was needed (8 hours) - 1. Nobel piece prize winner / 2. YMCA instructor = more credible is more effective = audience will resist if discrepancy is too big

Answer 168

Characterises unquestioned obedience and people transfer responsibility on the people telling them to do something

Answer 169

1. present both sides of the argument if audience are intelligent / present one side if they aren't 2. comparative advertising - rival product is presented as inferior to a target product 3. repetition fear

Answer 170

Immediacy of the victim - how close the victim is Immediacy of authority figure - If the authority figure was further away, it was harder to diffuse responsibility onto them PROXIMITY

Answer 171

yes - it enhances it

Answer 172

three groups of children on dental health: - low-fear = gum disease - moderate-fear = explicit detail on oral disease - high-fear = disease could spread to different parts of the body = after a week -> LOW FEAR group were looking after their teeth the best/ high fear = the worst

Answer 173

the set of assumptions or criteria by which a person or group judges ideas, actions, and experiences.

Answer 174

Optical illusion in which a pinpoint of light shining in complete darkness appears to move about

Answer 175

using fear to stop smoking: - moderate-fear = talk about link between smoking and lung cancer - high-fear = operation on a person with lung cancer = greater willingness to stop smoking from HIGH-FEAR

Answer 176

it is due to an inverted u-curve hypothesis - the more we understand what is being presented to us, the more likely we are to accept the message

Answer 177

attitude change increases as fear increase to a MODERATE level high levels of fear lead to a decrease in attitude change = lack of attention or disruption from intense emotions

Answer 178

people who are not frightened may not be motivated to attend to the message as it doesn't effectively show the harmful consequences of the behaviour

Answer 179

arousal, interest, and attention

Answer 180

arouse lots of anxiety and panic -> we become DISTRACTED and miss factual content and unable to process information properly

Answer 181

Conformity is lower of people in individualist countries

Answer 182

Group size - Increase in group size increases conformity Group unanimity - Increases conformity with unanimity

Answer 183

People accept information from other people as evidence for reality

Answer 184

People conform to the positive expectations of others to gain social approval or to avoid social disapproval

Answer 185

Pressure to conform to a group norm that defines oneself as a group member

Answer 186

reduce dangerous health practices if there is an effective presentation of how to cope with the danger

Answer 187

a demand can be perceived as a threat if you feel like you don't have the resources to cope, and a challenge if you have the resources to cope

Answer 188

the most fundamental human motivation is to reduce terror of inevitability dying self-esteem is centrally implicated in effective terror management

Answer 189

people are more likely to follow a health recommendation if they believe they are very vulnerable to the threat

Answer 190

Involves social categorization - how we group individuals based on social information Involves social comparison - People are motivated to obtain a positive social identity through positive intergroup social comparisons

Answer 191

paralysing terror

Answer 192

symbolic immortality by identifying with cultural institutions (religion)

Answer 193

Exaggerate our differences and and emphasise similarities

Answer 194

A member of a minority group influences the majority

Answer 195

Tendency for social psychology to treat group influence as a one-way process

Answer 196

Moscovici studied how consistent minorities create cognitive conflict and produce social innovation by disrupting established norms and making visible their alternative point of view

Answer 197

Consistency - it disrupts majority norm and produces uncertainty and doubt Draws attention to the minority as an entity Demonstrates certainty and commitment

Answer 198

factual - facts and objective = focuses on lots of info / price/production/quality etc. evaluative - opinion and subjective = makes the consumer feel good about the product (emotions)

Answer 199

Majority influence- direct public compliance for normative or informational dependence. They are accepted passively without much thought Minority influence- indirect private change in opinion due to cognitive conflict. Minorities produce a conversion effect as a consequence of active consideration of minority point of view

Answer 200

easy message = a videotaped presentation is the best for opinion change difficult message = written

Answer 201

plays an important role in attitude change: - behaviour for detecting an illness -> preventing loss - behaviour has positive outcome -> terms of gain

Answer 202

the impact of a persuasive message can increase OVER TIME when a discounting cue, such as an invalid source, cant be recalled:

Answer 203

When minority influence brings about sudden and dramatic internal change in the attitudes of the majority

Answer 204

1. quality of the argument 2. others cues (credibility of its source)

Answer 205

a less credible source will be just as persuasive as the more credible source a month later = the message survives = the source dies

Answer 206

1. latent influence 2. conversion in the minority influence

Answer 207

Direction of attention - majority influence causes people to focus on their relationship with the majority whereas with minority, people think about the minority message content of thinking - Majority influence leads to superficial examination of arguments, whereas minority influence leads to detailed evaluation of arguments differential influence - Majority influence produces more public/direct influence than private/indirect like minority influence

Answer 208

People expect to have the sane views as the majority, so the discovery through majority influence that their attitudes are in disagreement with the majority can be stressful which leads to a narrowing self-protective of focus of attention. This is convergent thinking that inhibits the consideration of alternate views

Answer 209

people with high or low self-esteem are less persuadable than those with MODERATE SELF-ESTEEM = low self-esteem -> more anxious = bad processing = high self-esteem -> less susceptible to influences

Answer 210

People do not expect to share views with the minority, therefore this discovery of agreement associated with minority influence is not stressful and does not narrow focus of thinking. This allows for divergent thinking that involves consideration of alternative views.

Answer 211

The relationship that stress has on message processing - Nemeth - Majority induces stress restricts message processing - Moscovici - minority induced stress elaborates message processing

Answer 212

1. women are socialised to be non-assertive and cooperative = less resistant than men to influence them 2. women are more easily persuaded only when the topic is more familiar by men

Answer 213

When a minorities message involves weak and unvested attitudes, an ingroup minority can be quite persuasive

Answer 214

Majority assumes that because the minority is an ingroup, it is unlikely to want to destroy the majorities core attitudes and therefore the majority is leniant to the minority and their views

Answer 215

- most researchers were male - topics used were male-oriented = METHODOLOGICAL BIAS

Answer 216

Process of assigning a cause to our behaviour and others behaviour

Answer 217

- participants listened to a recorded message by either a man or a woman - they spoke assertively or not confidently = female & tentative = men more easily influenced than female listeners = male readers were influential in both categories = depends on the sex, the message, and if it is delivered in a stereotypical way

Answer 218

gender differences in social influence in small groups

Answer 219

A causes B, but if C (the moderator) is involved = improves the power

Answer 220

1. need for closure 2. need to evaluate 3. preference for consistency 4. attitude importance

Answer 221

social context

Answer 222

1. increasing persistence - susceptibility to attitude change in higher when younger and decreases as you get older 2. impressionable years - core attitudes, values and beliefs are defined in early adulthood - S CURVE 3. life stages - high susceptibility during early adulthood and later life, but lower in middle adulthood - U CURVE 4. lifelong openness - individuals are susceptible to attitude change throughout their lives 5. persistence - most of an individual's fundamental orientations are established firmly during pre-adult socialisation -> susceptibility is low

Answer 223

1. PRIOR BELIEFS = disconfirmation bias - makes the new message weak / affects whether factual evidence is considered 2. COGNITIVE BIASES = people believe they are less influenced than others (third person effect) - dont identify

Answer 224

tendency to notice and deny arguments that contradict our prior beliefs

Answer 225

elaboration-likelihood model heuristic-systematic model

Answer 226

persuasive message -> elaborated high -> CENTRAL ROUTE -> processed carefully OR persuasive message -> elaborated low -> PERIPHERAL ROUTE -> processed not carefully

Answer 227

persuasive message -> carefully attend = SYSTEMATIC PROCESSING OR persuasive message -> not carefully attended = HEURISTIC PROCESSING (mental 'short-cuts')

Answer 228

at the sufficient threshold: - satisfy our need to be confident in our attitude = not confident = systematic processing = confident = heuristic processing

Answer 229

being in a good mood affects our attention to information -> we can't process systematically well

Answer 230

our good mood leads us to flick though autopilot = use heuristic processing or peripheral route

Answer 231

A process of social influence through which an individual enlists and mobilises the aid of others in the attainment of a collective goal.

Answer 232

Perspective on leadership that attributes effective leadership to innate or acquired individual characteristics

Answer 233

Five major personality dimensions - openness, consciousness, extraversion, agreeableness, emotional stability

Answer 234

The traits that leaders have

Answer 235

Anybody can lead under the right circumstances

Answer 236

Leaders who use a styles based on giving out orders and expecting people to follow them

Answer 237

Use a style based on consultation and obtaining agreement and consent from followers

Answer 238

leaving the group to their own devices and barely got involved.

Answer 239

A scale devised by the Ohio state that leadership researchers use to measure leadership behaviour and distinguish between initiating structure and considerations dimensions

Answer 240

Theories of leadership that consider the leadership effectiveness of particular behaviours or behavioural styles to be contingent on the nature of the leadership situation - Fielders situational control contingency theory - Normative decision theory - Path-goal theory

Answer 241

Distinguished between task-orientated leaders who are authoritarian, value group success and derive self-esteem from accomplishing a task rather than being liked in a group. And relationship-orientated leaders who are relaxed, friendly, non-directive, and sociable and gain self-esteem from happy and harmonious group relations

Answer 242

Bales (1950)

Answer 243

Least-preferred co-worker scale

Answer 244

Respondents rate the person they least preferred as a co-worker on a number of different dimensions (pleasent-unpleasent, boring-interesting, friendly-unfriendly)

Answer 245

High LPC showed relationship-orientated Low LPC showed task-orientated

Answer 246

High score on initiating structure - define the groups objectives and organise members work towards attainment of these goals (TASK-OREINTATED) High score on consideration - concerned with the welfare of subordinates and seek to promote harmonious relationship (RELATIONSHIP-ORIENTATED)

Answer 247

superficial / public change in behaviour due to group pressure or coercion

Answer 248

behaviour individuals have some form of power over you

Answer 249

1. intimidation = elicit fear 2. exemplification = elicit guilt 3. supplication = elicit pity 4. self-promotion = elicit respect and confidence 5. ingratiation = get people to like you to secure compliance with a request

Answer 250

1. agrees with them and get them to like them 2. requests are made

Answer 251

ingratiation reciprocity principle multiple requests

Answer 252

gain compliance by doing someone a favour, or mutual aggression or mutual attraction

Answer 253

gain compliance by a 2-step procedure: - request functions - real request = "foot in the door"

Answer 254

if someone agrees to a small request, they are more likely to comply to a larger request later on

Answer 255

the actual favour is accepted by asking them to do a larger request which they will decline

Answer 256

a person agrees to a request still feels committed even when they've found out their was hidden costs

Answer 257

- asked people to let 6 people do a thorough inventory of their household items = 22% agreed = if they had been spoken to before asking a few questions on what kind of soap they use = 53% agreed

Answer 258

when the requests are too small or too big

Answer 259

"the degree to which the situation provides the leader with potential influence over the group's behavior".

Answer 260

Task-orientated leaders are most effective when situational control is low (because the group needs a directive leader to focus on getting things done) and high (because the group is doing fine) Relationship-ordinated learders are most effective when situational conrrol is somewhere between the extremes

Answer 261

- young man ask random people for directions to a made up street - young woman asked the same people to look after a huge bag for five minutes - control group = bag but no directions = compliance HIGHER in the FIRST group

Answer 262

bem's self perception theory - complying with a small request makes people more committed to their behaviour and see themselves as "giving" cialdini & trost (1998)'s self consistency - if we are charitable one time we will be again

Answer 263

A contingency theory focused on leadership in decision making contexts

Answer 264

- Autocratic - subordinate input is not sought - Consultative - Subordinate input is sought, but leader remains the authority to make the final decision - group decision-making - leader and subordinates are equal parts in a truly shared decision-making process

Answer 265

A contingency theory (can be classified as a transactional theory) that focuses on how structuring and consideration behaviours motivate followers

Answer 266

1 - "would you be a voluntary counsellor for two hours at a week for young offenders at a youth centre?" = no 2 - "would you chaperone a group of offenders on a two hour trip to the zoo?" = 50% YES = large request no, but smaller request after yes = second question alone = 17% yes = should be asked by the SAME PERSON (feel pressure to say no again)

Answer 267

once a course of action is decided, people will continue to invest in it even if the cost increase dramatically

Answer 268

- asked half participants to do an experiment that started at 7am = control (31%) - other half was told to do an experiemnt and then informed it was at 7am = low-ball = COMPLIED MORE (56%)

Answer 269

mindlessness - agreeing to a request without giving it any thought

Answer 270

attitude change can happen if people are ACTIVELY ENGAGED in the research process

Answer 271

people who gave a speech arguing about something they are passionate about are most likely to accept attitude change when listening passively to the other side

Answer 272

people actively organise their cognitions and change them to make them consistent with how they feel or act = psychological tension when a person has 2 or more cognitions (bits of info) that are inconsistent e.g. monogamy is important for marriage but is having an affair

Answer 273

Structuring - more effective when followers are unclear about their goals and how to reach them Consideration - most effective when the task is boring or uncomfortable

Answer 274

- highest in australia - campaign -> "SLIP! SLAP! SLOP!" = three year study - less sunburn = 11 - 7% - more hats = 19 -29% - more suncream - 12 -21% - more clothing - 67 -71%

Answer 275

group of attitude theories - people try to maintain internal consistency, order and agreement in various cognitions

Answer 276

- we seek harmony in our attitudes, beliefs and behaviours and REDUCE TENSION from inconsistencies - REDUCE DISSONANCE by changing one of the cognitions e.g. whats wrong with a little fun if no one finds out? - look for additional evidence / reasonings to justify

Answer 277

Approach to leadership that focuses on transaction of resources between leader and followers. Leaders transact with followers to get things done - creating expectations and setting goals, providing recognition and offering rewards for completion.

Answer 278

people tend to avoid potential dissonant information exceptions: attitude is... - very strong = argue against - very weak = discover the truth

Answer 279

Transactional theory. Followers reward leaders for achieving group goals by allowing them to be relatively idiosyncratic

Answer 280

Unique to an individual. For a leader this could mean being innofvative and experimenting

Answer 281

participants had written profiles on managers to decide whether to terminate or continue their role - half = choices were reversible - half = choices were irreversible had to choose extra bits of info from consonant info (in support of their attitude) or dissonant info (in opposition) = chose more CONSONANT info than dissonant / more in the IRREVERSIBLE

Answer 282

- Initially conforming closely to establish group norms - Ensure that the group feels that it has democratically chosen you as a leader - Making sure you are seeing to have competence to fulfil the groups objectives - Been seen to identify with the group, its ideas and aspirations

Answer 283

Innovative credit

Answer 284

Theory of leadership in which effective leadership relies on the ability of the leader to develop good quality personalised exchange memberships with individual members.

Answer 285

Vertical dyad linkage model - a sharp distinction between dyadic leader-member relations: the subordinate is treated either as an ingroup or outgroup member.

Answer 286

- feelings of regret and attitudes change after making a decision - reasons why people seek social support for their beliefs - attitude changes where there is lack of support from ingroup members

Answer 287

1. effort justification 2. induced compliance 3. free choice

Answer 288

High-quality: based on mutual respect, trust and obligation - should motivate subordinate to internalise the group's and leader's goals Low-quality: based on the terms of employment contract - simply comply with leaders goals without internalising them as their own

Answer 289

inconsistency is experienced when a person makes an effort to achieve a modest goal - people see small rewards as larger when a lot of effort is put in

Answer 290

Leaders inspire followers to adopt a vision that involves more than individual self-interest. Focus on the way that leaders transform group goals and actions - mainly through charisma

Answer 291

female students volunteered in a group discussion on sex: - before they could join the group they had to do a screening test for their capacity to speak frankly - severe = had to say a list of obscene sexual words - mild = words like 'petting' 'prostitution' - had to rate the conversation boring -> interesting = severe - group discussion was more interesting

Answer 292

Individualised consideration: attention to followers needs, abilities, aspirations Intellectual stimulation: challenging followers basic thinking, assumptions and practices Charismatic leadership: Provides the urgency, energy, and reasoning that transforms followers

Answer 293

Most popular and widely used scale for measuring transactional and transformational leadership

Answer 294

Good charisma - socialised charisma that is morally uplifting to improve society Bad charisma - personalised charisma to tear down groups and society

Answer 295

women who needed help to lose weight: - come to lab > weighed > explained 'procedure' - high effort = time-consuming and effortful tasks (tongue twisters for 40mins) -low effort = shorter and easier tasks - control = weighed > report at a later date - 5 sessions = 94% of HIGH group lost weight = 39% of low group lost weight

Answer 296

Leadership style based upon the leader's (perceived) possession of charisma

Answer 297

The variety of schemas about how different types of leaders behave in different leader situations. When a leader is categorised as a particular type of leader, the schema fills in details about how that leader will behave.

Answer 298

More favourable leadership perceptions

Answer 299

people are induced to act in a way that is inconsistent with their attitudes - not forced against their will

Answer 300

Theory of influence in groups that attributes greater influence to those who possess both task relevant characteristics (specific status characteristics) and characteristics of a high status group in society (diffuse status characteristics)

Answer 301

Expectations states theory

Answer 302

participants performed a very boring task for an hour to contribute to research on "measures of performance" then told you are a control participant and are going to be a confederate - of 'real' help you had to tell the next participant the tasks were really interesting offers money if you would be willing to do it again in the future: $1 (one condition) or $20 (condition two) = $1 - INTERESTING $20 = BORING

Answer 303

As people identify more strongly in a group, they pay closer attention to the group prototype and to what and who identify as a group member. Views leadership as a group process generated by social categorization and prototype-based depersonalization processes associated with social identity.

Answer 304

the dissonance associated with behaviour in a counter-attitudinal way

Answer 305

- Leaders are viewed as the source of conformity processes. - Leaders are liked as group members because the group members usually agree with the prototype, they all like the leader. - Leaders find the group more central and important to self-definition and identify more strongly with it; they have significant investment in the group and act in more group-serving ways which confirms their prototypicality, encouraging group members to trust them. - Correspondence bias

Answer 306

Attribution bias in which people have an inflated tendency to see behaviour as reflecting Stable underlying personality attributes.

Answer 307

military setting - requested to eat grasshoppers by an authority figure who was either warm or cold = 50% ate them! = negative officer = ate MORE = those who ate them were more favourable on the grasshoppers (justify)

Answer 308

reduces dissonance

Answer 309

people who had already made their bet were more confident of winning rather than those about to make their bets

Answer 310

cognitive short-cut = instances are assigned to categories of similarity or resemblance to the category - we are less confident of winning the lottery if we changed our bought ticket for a new one

Answer 311

self-consistency

Answer 312

people reduce the impact of threat to their self-concept by focusing on their competence in another area

Answer 313

View that procedural justice within group makes members feel valued which leads to enhanced commitment to and identification with the group

Answer 314

when two people share a strong bond (in the same group), dissonance from one person can be felt by the other

Answer 315

Effective authority requires fairness and justice-based relations between leader and followers

Answer 316

The fairness of the outcome of the decision

Answer 317

The fairness of the procedures used to make decisions

Answer 318

Short-term personal gain is at odds with the long-term good of the group

Answer 319

An invisible barrier that prevents women, and minorities from attaining top leadership positions.

Answer 320

Mainly applied to the gender-gap in leadership because social stereotypes of women are inconsistent with people's schemas of effective leadership so women are evaluated as poor leaders

Answer 321

self-perception theory - we gain knowledge of ourselves by self-attributions

Answer 322

Feeling that we will be judged and treated in terms of negative stereotypes of our group and that we will inadvisably confirm these stereotypes through our behaviour

Answer 323

1. reactance 2. forewarning 3. inoculation

Answer 324

A tendency for women to be appointed to precarious leadership positions associated with a high probability of failure and criticism.

Answer 325

Leaders not only lead their group but they also lead their group against other groups

Answer 326

people try to protect their freedom to act: - if the persuasion is noticeably deliberate, you are more likely to resist (brehm, 1966) - leads to a negative attitude change

Answer 327

being told that someone is going to influence you: - have time to rehearse counter-arguments

Answer 328

Groups nested in a larger group overestimate how well their own characteristics are represented in the superordinate group.

Answer 329

exposing someone to a weak counter-attitudinal argument allows them to build up effective refutations for a strong argument later on

Answer 330

Explicit or implicit decision making rules that relate individual opinions to a final group decision

Answer 331

The amount of agreement required by the rule - Unanimity is very strict and majority-wins is less strict

Answer 332

How authoritarian the rule - authoritarian concentrates po0wer in one member and egalitarian spread power among all members

Answer 333

1. supportive defence - resistance strengthened by providing additional arguments that are backed up by original beliefs 2. inoculation defence - person learns what the oppositions' arguments are and then hears them demolished

Answer 334

Method for charting incremental changes in member opinions as a group moves towards a final decision

Answer 335

students asked to agree on a 15 point scale on health beliefs - "mental illness is not contagious" / "brush your teeth after every meal" wrote essays - support defence = little more resistant to an attack compared to control group inoculated defence = significantly strengthened their defence against a strong attack from same control group

Answer 336

1. Evaluation apprehension - Member may still be concerned about saying the wrong thing when wanting to make a good impression 2. Social loafing and free-riding - Motivation loss because of the collective nature of the task 3. Production matching - Member try to match the productivity of other members so may reduce productivity if other members are less productive. 4. Production blocking - Creativity is interrupted from having to wait for other people to share their ideas too

Answer 337

attitude accessibility & attitude strength

Answer 338

Electronic brainstorming - Reduces the extent to which the production of others ideas are interrupted by other people Heterogeneous groups - Members have diverse types of knowledge about brainstorming topic which may cause a stimulating environment and alleviate the effects of production blocking

Answer 339

two or more people who share a common definition of themselves and behave in relation

Answer 340

Experience-based belief that we produce more and better ideas in groups than alone

Answer 341

1. In a group they feel that they are producing more ideas because more individuals are coming up with ideas, but usually that individual alone is producing less ideas than usual 2. Brainstorming normally feels more enjoyable so people prefer working in groups than alone. 3. People in groups call out only some of the ideas that they have and others in the group call out the remaining ones that they may have thought

Answer 342

Group members have a shared memory for who in the group remember what and is the expert one what

Answer 343

McDougal's idea that people adopt a qualitatively different mode of thinking when in a group

Answer 344

property of a group that makes it seem coherent and a distinct entity high entitativity = clear boundaries / internally well structured / more independent / homogenous low entitativity = fuzzy boundaries and structure / heterogenous / less independent

Answer 345

Groups can negotiate responsibility for different memory domains - e.g. couples decide who is responsible for bills, groceries, cars etc. Groups can assign memory domains on the basis of relative expertise Groups can assign memory domains on the basis of access to information

Answer 346

1. intimacy groups 2. task groups 3. social categories 4. loose associations

Answer 347

Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome.

Answer 348

- Excessive group cohesiveness - Insulation of group from external information and influence - Lack of impartial leadership and norms encouraging proper procedures - Ideological homogeneity of membership - High stress from external threat and lack of task complexity

Answer 349

bond - groups based on attachment among members - personal goals identity - groups based on direct attachment to the group - group goals because the group provides an important part of their identity

Answer 350

bond - women (felt close to other members) identity - men (individual goals)

Answer 351

collection of unrelated individuals

Answer 352

- Feelings of invulnerability and unanimity - Unquestioning belief that the group must be right - Tendency to ignore or discredit information contrary to the groups position - Direct pressure exerted on dissidents to bring them into line - Stereotyping of outgroup members

Answer 353

Poor decision making procedures - ones with low chance of success

Answer 354

individualists - people in groups behave in the same way as they do by themselves collectivists - people's behaviours in groups are influenced by social processes and cognitive representations that happen in groups

Answer 355

individualists - people in groups behave in the same way as they do by themselves collectivists - people's behaviours in groups are influenced by social processes and cognitive representations that happen in groups

Answer 356

Risky shift occurs when people change their decisions or opinions to become more extreme and risky when acting as part of a group, compared with acting individually

Answer 357

when a group of like-minded people reinforce each other's opinions, positive or negative, and these opinions become more extreme as they're discussed.

Answer 358

collection of individuals who... - join to achieve a goal - are interdependent - influence each other - interactions are structured by a set of roles and norms

Answer 359

People in groups are persuaded by novel information that supports their initial position, therefore becoming more extreme in their initial position

Answer 360

Comparing our behaviours and opinions with those of others in order to establish the correct or approved way of thinking or behaving

Answer 361

People in groups use members opinions about the position values in wider culture and adjust their views in that direction for social approval

Answer 362

The Bandwagon effect - Learning which extreme position is socially acceptable and people in group discussion may compete to appear to be strong advocators of this extreme view. Pluralistic ignorance - People behave publicly in ways that do not reflect what they actually think so can be ignorant of what everyone else really thinks

Answer 363

cognitive bias in which those items, ideas, or arguments that came last are remembered more clearly than those that came first.

Answer 364

improvement in performance of easy tasks and a deterioration of difficult tasks when in the presence of OTHER PEOPLE

Answer 365

passive and unresponsive audience that is only physically present

Answer 366

- presence of people in the same group - presence of people doing the same thing but not interacting - presence of people passively watching

Answer 367

impact of presence of others on individual task performance

Answer 368

physical presence of members of the same species instinctively causes arousal that motivates performance of dominant (best learnt) behaviour patterns - people are unpredictable -> causes alertness correct dominant response = social facilitation incorrect dominant response = social inhibition

Answer 369

physical presence of members of the same species cause drive as people have learnt to be fearful about being evaluated - we quickly learn social rewards and punishments are based on other's evaluatiosn of us

Answer 370

physical presence of members of the same species is distracting and produces conflict between attending the task and attending the audience

Answer 371

support: - no social facilitation effect when the audience was blindfolded and merely present against: - males had to get dressed in unfamiliar clothing and then back in their own clothes -> mere presence = slow performance down = drive theory

Answer 372

distraction is minimal if the presence of another person is doing a different task distraction high / more mistakes = same task -> social comparison (sanders, baron and moore, 1978)

Answer 373

Behaviour among individuals that is regulated by those individuals awareness off and identification with different social groups

Answer 374

Set of interrelated concepts and principles concerning which theories or types of theory are appropriate

Answer 375

A sense of having less than we feel entitles to

Answer 376

A graphical figure that captures the way in which relative deprivation arises when attainments suddenly fall short of rising expectations

Answer 377

Egoistic relative deprivation: A feeling of having less than we are entitled to, relative to our aspirations or to other individuals Fraternalisitc relative deprivation: Sense that our group has less than it is entitled to, relative to its aspirations or other groups

Answer 378

1. Becoming part of the mobilisation potential. Be a sympathiser 2. Becoming a target of mobilisation attempts. As well as being a sympathiser, must be informed about what you can do and what is being done 3. Developing motivation to participate. As well as being a sympathiser and knowing what is going on - you must be willing to participate 4. Overcoming barriers to participation

Answer 379

Evaluative preference for all aspects of our own group relative to others groups. Your own groups values become standard and the base of what you compare other groups to. Your groups is 'normal'

Answer 380

Goals that both groups desire but can only be achieved by both groups cooperation

Answer 381

Goals that both groups desire but can only be achieved by both groups cooperation

Answer 382

Goals that both groups desire but can only be achieved by both groups cooperation

Answer 383

Goals that both groups desire but can only be achieved by both groups cooperation

Answer 384

is a social psychological model of intergroup conflict.[3] The theory explains how intergroup hostility can arise as a result of conflicting goals and competition over limited resources, and it also offers an explanation for the feelings of prejudice and discrimination toward the outgroup that accompany the intergroup hostility.

Answer 385

Two person game in which both parties are torn between competition and cooperation and depending on mutual choices, both can win or lose

Answer 386

Social dilemma in which cooperation by all benefits all, but competition by all harms all.

Answer 387

self-awareness theory: - when people focus their attention on themselves a an object, they make comparisons between their actual self (actual task performance) and their ideal self (how they would like to perform) self-discrepancy theory: = increases motivation -> actual is ideal (easy tasks) = difficult tasks -> discrepancy is too big = people give up self-presentation: - make the best possible impression of themselves to others = easy tasks -> social presence improves performance = difficult tasks -> people anticipate and make errors -> embarrassment = impairs task performance attentional consequences of social presence: - people narrow the focus on their attention when they experience attentional overload -> have a limited attention capacity = overload from an audience - attention overload -> narrow attention -> focus on small amount of cues *difficult tasks needs long amount of cues*

Answer 388

the theory was exactly the same - easy tasks improved and difficult tasks deteriorated

Answer 389

group tasks are classified on whether there is a division of labour, a predetermined standard to be met and the person's input can contribute

Answer 390

1. is the task divisible (different people perform different tasks) or unitary (cant be broken down into subtasks)? - e.g. build a house vs pulling a rope 2. is it a maximising task (do as much as possible) or an optimising task (meet the standard)? - e.g. pulling the rope vs maintaining a specific force 3. how are the person's inputs related to the groups groduct? - additive task = sum of all individual inputs - compensatory task = average of individual inputs - disjunctive task = group selects one individual input - conjunctive task = determined by the rate of performance of the slowest member - discretionary task = group is free to decide on its course of action

Answer 391

process loss - deterioration in group performance due to social distractors and coordination of members' activities coordination loss - deterioration in group performance due to problems in coordinating behaviour

Answer 392

individual effort on a task diminishes as group size increases e.g. more people pulling on a rope = less force

Answer 393

coordination loss motivation loss - due to social loafing (reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task compared to working alone)

Answer 394

free-rider effect - gaining the benefits of group membership by avoiding costly obligations and letting other members pay (takes advantages of resources without contibuting)

Answer 395

they have different motivations

Answer 396

1. output equity - we thinks others loaf so we do it aswell to avoid being a sucker 2. evaluation apprehension - worry about being evaluated by others, but when we are anonymous we loaf 3. matching to standard - dont have a clear sense of the groups standards or norms

Answer 397

due to social impact - effect that other people have on our attitudes

Answer 398

partner effort personal identification intergroup comparison

Answer 399

increased effort on a collective task to compensate for other group members' anticipated lac of effort

Answer 400

different cultures - greater value on groups than individuals (collectivists)

Answer 401

group cohesiveness - binds people to one another (solidarity)

Answer 402

a field of forces (attractiveness of group and members) and the extent to which the group satisfies individual goals produces cohesiveness and behaviours, such as sticking to group standards and staying in the group

Answer 403

Hogg (1993) - difference between personal attraction and social attraction: personal - liking someone based on close relationship and idiosyncratic preferences social - liking someone based on common group membership (self categorisation theory)

Answer 404

1. doesnt reduce reduce solidarity and cohesiveness to just interpersonal attraction 2. applicable to small interactive group

Answer 405

group cooperation can be sustained only if members show ingroup loyalty and willingness to sacrifice self-gain for the good of the group

Answer 406

dynamic relationship between the group and its members that describes the passage of members through a group (commitment and changing roles)

Answer 407

1. forming - familiarisation 2. storming - work through disagreements about goals 3. norming - cohesion / common identity 4. performing - group works smoothly as a unit / good morale 5. adjourning - group dissolves as they have accomplished their goals / lose interest and motivation

Answer 408

1. evaluation - group members engage in process of comparison of the past, present, and future rewards of the group with the rewards of potential alternative relationships / group evaluates people's contribution 2. commitment - evaluation affects the commitment of the individual to the group / symmetrical positive commitment = agree on goals and values 3. role transitioning - a sharp change in the type of role a member occupies in a group 1. non-member = not joined yet or ex member 2. quasi-member = new members / not member status 3. full member = closely identify with the group

Answer 409

time = entry -> acceptance -> divergence -> exit role = prospective member -> new member -> full member -> marginal member -> ex-member (bell curve)

Answer 410

1. investigation - group recruits prospective members (formal - interviews or less formal - society) = role transition 2. socialisation - group assimilates new members (educates them) = acceptance 3. maintenance - role negotiation (role dissatisfaction = divergence) 4. resocialisation - divergence = member is marginalised into a deviant role = leaves = exit 5. remembrance - parties reminisce

Answer 411

initiation rites - painful or embarrassing public procedures to mark group members' movement from one role to another

Answer 412

1. symbolic = consensual public recognition of a change in identity 2. apprenticeship - help people become accustomed to new roles 3. loyalty elicitation - pleasant initiations = gratitude and increase commitment

Answer 413

cognitive dissonance - "painful experience to join the group" and "some parts of the group is not great" - dissonance = initiation is public -> downplay negative aspects and focus on positive ones

Answer 414

attitudinal and behavioural uniformities that define group membership and differentiate between groups

Answer 415

the violation of hidden norms to reveal their presence

Answer 416

widely shared and simplified evualtive image of a social group and its members

Answer 417

normative - behaviour that is shared by a group stereotypical - shared generalisations made by individuals about members of other groups

Answer 418

range of positions on some (subjective) attitudinal/behavioural dimension, which relevant people can occupy in a particular context = explanation for our behaviour

Answer 419

- group set itself a standard of 50 units per hour as the minimum level to secure job tenure - new members quickly adopted this norm - members who didn't were sanctioned (ostracised) / work sabotaged

Answer 420

Gaining the benefits of group membership by avoiding costly obligations and by allowing other members to incur the costs

Answer 421

- more restrictive (military uniform) - higher status groups can get away with more than lower status = latitude of acceptable behaviour

Answer 422

Experimental methodology to investigate the effect of social categorization alone on behaviour

Answer 423

- fundamental organisation principles for our behaviour that regulate behavioural activation (approach) and behavioural inhibition (avoidance) - groups form their normative attitudes and believe it is the right way to act and build moral principles - groups compare themselves to other groups -> moral high ground = conflicts

Answer 424

division of a group into different roles that differ with respect and status

Answer 425

patterns of behaviour that distinguish between different activities within the group - subgroups in the group

Answer 426

Classification of people as members of different social groups

Answer 427

- represent division of labour - social expectations within the group and provide info about how members can relate to each other - self-definition of members and a place in the group

Answer 428

Behaviour that emphasises between our own group and other groups

Answer 429

Behaviour that favours ones own group over other groups

Answer 430

consensual evaluation of the prestige of a role or role occupant in a group / prestige of a group or its members

Answer 431

Personality syndrome originating in childhood that predisposes individuals to be prejudiced

Answer 432

1. prestige 2. initiate ideas and activities adopted by the group

Answer 433

Theory that all frustration leads to aggression, and all aggression comes from frustration. It is used explain prejudice and intergroup aggression

Answer 434

social comparison theory

Answer 435

Cognitive representation of the typical/ideal defining features of a category

Answer 436

Prototypes maximise the ratio of intergroup differences to intragroup differences which accentuates group entitativity

Answer 437

Property of a group that makes it seem like a coherent, distinct and unitary entity

Answer 438

Perception and treatment of self and others not as unique individual persons but as prototypical embodiments of a social group

Answer 439

- Intergroup differentiation elevates self-esteem - Depressed self-esteem does not motivate intergroup differentiation - It is collective self-esteem that is related to group processes - People in groups are highly creative and competent protecting themselves from the low self-esteem consequences of low status group membership

Answer 440

Belief that intergroup boundaries are permeable. So it is possible for someone to pass from a lower-status into a higher-status group to improve social identity

Answer 441

Belief that intergroup boundaries are impermeable. Therefore a lower-status individual can improve social identity only by challenging the legitimacy of the higher status groups position

Answer 442

Belief that the status-quo is unstable and illegitimate, and that social competition with the dominant group is the appropriate strategy to improve social identity

Answer 443

expectation state theory - status consists of specific and diffuse status characteristics status - attributes that relate directly to ability on the group task diffuse - attributes that dont relate directly to ability on the group task but are positively or negatively valued in society

Answer 444

set of rules governing the possibility or ease of communication between different roles in a group

Answer 445

Group based behavioural strategies that improve social identity but do not directly attack the dominant groups position

Answer 446

Group based behavioural strategies that improve social identity by directly confronting the dominant groups position in society

Answer 447

Theory that attributes social stasis to people's adherence to an ideology that justifies and protects the status quo

Answer 448

Overestimation of similarities among people within a category and dissimilarities between people from different categories

Answer 449

Tendency to see outgroup members as all the same, and ingroup members as more differentiated

Answer 450

Cognitive exaggeration of the degree of co-occurance of two stimuli or events, or the perception of a co-occurance where none exists

Answer 451

greater centralisation improves group performance

Answer 452

less centralised structure is superior

Answer 453

reduce group satisfaction and solidarity produce internal conflict

Answer 454

division of a group into subgroups that differ in their attitudes, values or ideology - subgroups that have different ideologically on core values

Answer 455

core/ highly prototypical members - best embody the group's attitude = influential marginal/ non-prototypical members - do not

Answer 456

a process where normative deviants who deviate towards an outgroup (ANTI-NORM DEVIANTS) are more harshly treated than those who deviate away from the outgroup (pro-norm deviants)

Answer 457

People strive to achieve a balance between conflicting motives for inclusiveness and separateness, expressed in groups as a balance between intragroup differentiation and intragroup homogenisation

Answer 458

terror management theory - reduce the fear of death = raises self -esteem = feel immortal uncertainty-identity theory - identify with distinctive groups to reduce uncertainty and feel comfortable (who we are and how to behave)

Answer 459

exclusion from a group by common consent

Answer 460

unfavourable attitude towards a social group and its members

Answer 461

stripping people of their dignity and humanity

Answer 462

exterminating an entire social group due to prejudice

Answer 463

Theory that in group conflicts, appraisals of personal harm or benefit in a situation operate at the level of social identity and thus produce mainly positive ingroup and negative outgroup emotions

Answer 464

attitude made up of: - cognitive = beliefs about a group - affective = strong feelings (normally negative) about a group and the qualities it has - conative = intention to behave in certain ways towards a group

Answer 465

Behaviour of people in a group

Answer 466

chinese couple go to america

Answer 467

Process whereby people lose their sense of socialised individual identity and engage in unsocialised, often antisocial behaviours

Answer 468

white females helped a black or white confederate if there was no one around and it was an emergency, but if there was people around they were significantly less likely to help the black confederate over the white one

Answer 469

Collective behaviour is regulated by norms based on distinctive behaviour that arises in the initially normless crowd

Answer 470

The mere presence of a weapon increases the probability that it will be used aggressively

Answer 471

housewife sexy career feminist/athlete/lesbian

Answer 472

behaviour deemed sex-stereotypically appropriate

Answer 473

when people behave in ways that are inconsistent with role expectations, observers reach negatively e.g. women are poor leaders

Answer 474

sex-stereotypical attributes of a person

Answer 475

an invisible barrier that prevents women and minorities from getting top leadership positions

Answer 476

tendency for women to be appointed to precarious leadership positions that are associated with a high probability of failure and criticism

Answer 477

media depiction that gives greater prominence to the head of men and less of their body, but vice versa for women

Answer 478

the media - face-ism tv

Answer 479

a cause to your behaviours and others'

Answer 480

differentiates between hostile and benevolent attitudes to women relating to attractiveness, dependence and identity

Answer 481

prejudice and discrimination against people based on their ethnicity or race

Answer 482

people are more subtle with their racism: denial of racial disadvantage, avoid the topic of race, separate lives

Answer 483

reaction time test to measure attitudes - unpopular ones people try to conceal

Answer 484

1. traditionalists - 1925-1945 = loyal, patient, hardworking 2. baby boomers - 1946 -1960 = optimistic, cooperation, teamwork, workaholic 3. gen x - 1961 - 1980 = sceptical, self reliant, risk takers 4. millenials - 1981 - 1999 = hopeful, diverse, change, tech savvy

Answer 485

- wise, knowledgeable, respectful - patriotic, religious, traditional

Answer 486

1. reluctant to help - make sure people are disadvantaged (facilities, accommodation, maternity leave) 2. tokenism - doing a small act towards members in a minority group to reduce accusations of prejudice and discrimination 3. reverse discrimination - publicly discriminating in favour of a minority group in order to deflect accusation of prejudice and discrimination against the group

Answer 487

group attributes that mediate a negative social evaluation of people belonging to the group

Answer 488

visibility/concealability and controllability

Answer 489

visible - race, gender, age = cant easily avoid being the target of stereotypes concealable - homosexuality = internalised stigma

Answer 490

chosen rather than assigned - obesity, smoking uncontrollable - race, sex = more severe discrimination

Answer 491

it allows other groups to have a positive sense of self-identity when comparing theirselves to stigmatised groups

Answer 492

feelings/ evaluation of oneself

Answer 493

they internalise the prejudice and form a negative self-image

Answer 494

it makes them develop unrealistic opinions of their abilities and future prospects

Answer 495

feeling that we will be judged and treated in terms of negative stereotypes, and we will unintentionally confirm these stereotypes through our behaviour (self-fulfilling prophecy)

Answer 496

- know about stereotype threats - reduce the extent that one's self esteem is tied to one thing - strongly identify with the stigmatised group - feeling powerful

Answer 497

expectations and assumptions about a person that influence our interaction with that person and change their behaviour in line with our expectations

Answer 498

- students did an iq test - teachers were told it would show their "blooming" ability = gave them 20 random names - teachers saw them as less interested and less curious = developed stereotypical expectations - had no different iqs at the beginning - end of 2nd year = bloomers = higher iqs / non-bloomers = low iqs

Answer 499

human uniqueness- attributes that distinguish humans from other animals -> when denied = childlike , immature human nature - attributes that are shared and fundamental features of humanity, e.g. warmth, emotionality -> when denied = likened to objects or machines - cold

Answer 500

internal attribution of sophisticated, uniquely human, higher emotions more to ingroup members than outgroups - less human

Answer 501

persuasive tendency to consider behaviour to reflect underlying, innate properties of people or the group

Answer 502

repeated exposure to an object results in greater attraction to that object = prejudice is innate?

Answer 503

- innate - learnt - parental modelling

Answer 504

all frustration leads to aggression, and all aggression comes from frustration

Answer 505

transfer of negative feelings on an individual or group other than that which originally caused the negative feelings

Answer 506

- aggression = frustration but frustration doesn't equal aggression 3 changes: 1. probability of the hypothesis is increased by situational cues 2. it is not objective frustration instigates aggression but the subjective feeling of being frustrated 3. frustration is only one large number of aversive events that can cause aggression

Answer 507

the behaviour of people en masse (crowd, riot)

Answer 508

a sense of having less than we feel entitled to

Answer 509

tendency to agree with items in an attitude questionnaire

Answer 510

cognitive style that is rigid and intolerant and predisposes people to be prejudiced (closemindedness)

Answer 511

1. conventionalism - adherence to societal conventions that are endorsed by established authorities 2. authoritarian aggression - support for aggression towards social deviants 3. authoritarian submission - submission to societys established authorities

Answer 512

attributes prejudice to an individuals acceptance of an ideology that legitimises ingroup hierarchy and domination, and reject egalitarian ideologies

Answer 513

attributes social status to peoples adherence to an ideology that justifies and protects the status quo

Answer 514

similar beliefs promote liking and social harmony among people wile dissimilar beliefs produce dislike and prejudice

Answer 515

experimental methodology that investigates the effect of social categorisation alone on behaviour

Answer 516

1. Realistic threat - A sense of threat to the existence of ones group, wellbeing, political power etc. 2. Symbolic threat - A threat posed by the outer group to ones values, beliefs, morals and norms 3. Intergroup anxiety - A threat to self which is experienced during intergroup relations 4. Negative stereotypes - Fear of intergroup anxiety based on negative stereotypes of an outgroup

Answer 517

it is everywhere and anywhere - is it inescapable?

Answer 518

The view that bringing members of opposing social groups together will improve intergroup relations and reduce prejudice and discrimination

Answer 519

behaviour resulting in personal injury or destruction of property intended to harm another

Answer 520

operational definitions so they can manipulate aggression

Answer 521

defines a theoretical term in a way that allows it to be manipulated or measured

Answer 522

1. analogues of behaviour: - punching a plastic doll - pressing a button that gives an electric shock 2. signal of intention: - verbal expression of willingness to be violent 3. ratings by self or others: - pencil/paper ratings by teachers and classmates of a child's level of aggression 4. indirect aggression: - relational aggression = damaging a person's peer relationships or spreading rumours

Answer 523

Bookkeeping - The accumulation of favourable information about an outgroup gradually improves the stereotype. If outgroup information is stored in terms of exemplars, dramatic attitude changes can occur as new exemplars are added or retrieved Conversion - Dramatically counter stereotypical information about an outgroup causes a sudden change in attitudes Subtyping - Stereotype-inconsistent information produces a subtype, so the outgroup stereotype becomes more complex but the superordinate category remains unchanged

Answer 524

they can conduct ethical research on aggression

Answer 525

Knowing about an ingroup member shares a close relationship with an outgroup member can improves one's own attitudes about the outgroup

Answer 526

Process of intergroup resolution where representatives reach agreement through direct negotiation.

Answer 527

nature-nature = whether genetics or environment determine human behaviour biological: - aggression is innate / instinct - aggression is innate due to releasers (specific stimuli in the environment to trigger aggression) biosocial: - innate but role of learning promotes aggression

Answer 528

Process of intergroup conflict resolution where a neutral third party intervenes in the negotiation process to facilitate a settlement

Answer 529

innate drive or impulse genetically transmitted - goal-directed/ beneficial

Answer 530

1. Able to reduce the emotional heat associated with deadlock 2. Help reduce misperceptions, encourage understanding and trust 3. Can propose novel compromises that allow both groups to appear to win 4. Can help both parties make a graceful retreat 5. Can inhibit unreasonable claims and behaviour by threatening to expose the group publicly as being unreasonable 6. Can reduce intragroup conflict and thus help a group to clarify its consensual position

Answer 531

human aggression comes from an innate 'death instinct' neo-freudians - innate but from primitive survival instincts

Answer 532

Process of intergroup conflict resolution in which a neutral third party is invited to impose a mutually binding settlement

Answer 533

Process whereby group makes cooperative gestures to one another in the hope of avoiding an escalation of conflict

Answer 534

Graduated and Reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction

Answer 535

1. One party announces it's conciliarity intent, clearly specifies a small concession it is bout to make and it invites its opponent to do likewise 2. The initiator makes the concession exactly as announced and in a publicly verifiable manner. There is now strong pressure on the other group to reciprocate

Answer 536

behaviour is genetic and controlled by natural selection

Answer 537

Acts that are positively valued by society

Answer 538

Acts that intentionally benefit someone else

Answer 539

innate impulse to aggress - we have large teeth

Answer 540

A special form of helping behaviour , sometimes costly, that shows concern for fellow human beings and is performed without expectation of personal gain

Answer 541

when we are violent we cant stop in order to kill we need weapons

Answer 542

views complex social behaviour as adaptive , helping the individual survive specific behaviours have evolved to promote the survival of our genes

Answer 543

Classic debate about whether genetic or environmental factors determine human behaviour. Scientists generally accept that it is an interaction of both

Answer 544

In attending to an emergency, the bystander calculates the perceived costs and benefits of providing help compared with those associated with not helping

Answer 545

Piliavins view that failing to help can cause distress to a bystander who emphasises with a victim

Answer 546

Piliavins view that not helping a victim can be costly to a bystander

Answer 547

1. Physiological arousal 2. Labelling the arousal 3. Evaluating the consequences

Answer 548

- social environment interactionist approach = bio/socio-cultural

Answer 549

An element in Bastons theory of helping behaviour in contrast to personal distress; includes feelings of warmth, being soft hearted and having compassion for a person in need

Answer 550

aggression is a function of learnt behaviour, some excitation from another source, and the person's interpretation of the arousal state e.g. work out at a gym -> high level of excitation (heart rate/blood pressure) -> motorist takes the last space = AGGRESSION

Answer 551

1. Giving instructions - Simply telling children to be helpful has been found to work 2. Using reinforcement - Rewarded behaviour is more likely to be repeated 3. Exposure to models - aka modelling

Answer 552

a class of violence against members of a stereotyped minority group

Answer 553

Acquiring a behaviour after observing another person that was rewarded for it

Answer 554

yes - social learning theory:

Answer 555

According to Lerner & Miller, people need to believe that the world is a just place where they get what they deserve. As evidence of undeserved suffering undermines this belief, people may conclude that victims deserve this fate

Answer 556

direct - behaviour acquired because we were rewarded for it vicarious - behaviour acquired after observation of another person being rewarded for it

Answer 557

Occurs when an individual breaks out of the role of a bystander and helps another person in an emergency

Answer 558

- person's previous experiences of others' aggressive behaviour - how successful aggressive behaviour has been in the past - current likelihood that an aggressive person will be rewarded or punished - cognitive, social and environmental factors

Answer 559

People are less likely to help in an emergency when they are with others than when they are alone. The greater the number, the less likely it is that anyone will help

Answer 560

learning through modelling

Answer 561

1. Noticing an emergency 2. How the event is interpreted 3. Accepting personal responsibility for helping 4. Deciding what to do 5. Helping

Answer 562

Tendency of an individual to assume that somebody else will help in an emergency

Answer 563

schema about an event - children learn rules of conduct from those around them -> aggression becomes internalised

Answer 564

Dread of acting inappropriately or of making a foolish mistake witnessed by others. The desire to avoid ridicule inhibits effective responses

Answer 565

People become more caring for othes when facing their mortality

Answer 566

tendency to aggress develop early in life: - have an insecure attachment style

Answer 567

- overactive - competitive - more aggressive - prone to coronary heart disease - work alone - socially destructive

Answer 568

no - no causality, CORRELATION aggression = testosterone in men

Answer 569

psychological gender differences are determined by individuals' adaptations to restrictions based on their gender in their society (social role theory)

Answer 570

sex differences in behaviour are determined by evolutionary history rather than society

Answer 571

men tend to be more aggressive than women across cultures and socioeconomic groups

Answer 572

Psychological gender differences are determined by individuals adaptations to restrictions based on their gender in their society. Also called social role theory

Answer 573

n individuals agreement in advance to be responsible if trouble occurs. e.g. committing to protect the property of another person against theft

Answer 574

Also known as the reciprocity norm - Refer to an attempt to gain compliance by first doing someone a favour, or to mutual aggression, or to mutual attraction

Answer 575

The idea that we should help people who are dependant in need. It is contradicted by another norm that discourages interfering in other peoples lives

Answer 576

release of pent-up feelings: - aggressive motivation is drained by acting against a frustrating object

Answer 577

acting aggressively or viewing aggressive material reduces feelings of anger and aggression

Answer 578

people who drink more are more aggressive / even if they dont drink more, alcohol can make you aggressive - alcohol impairs cognition (attention, memory) - placebo effect -> we think we will be more aggressive

Answer 579

a breakdown of social mores against behaving impulsively or aggressively - alcohol has a disinhibiting effect - we act out of character -> immorally, antisocial

Answer 580

people lose their sense of socialised individual identity and engage in unsocialised, antisocial behaviour - affects the aggressor with the presence of others

Answer 581

when we drink, we lose how we percieve people and see them as less than human

Answer 582

unified aggression by a group of individuals who may not even know eachother against another individual or group

Answer 583

1. heat -> inverted U = too hot = aggression declines (decline in energy) 2. crowding = population density / subjective personal space 3. sports events = hooliganism

Answer 584

mix of personal and situational variables that activates three kinds of internal states (affect, cognition and arousal), and a person's appraisal of the situation is predominanly impulsive or thoughtful, leading to a social interaction input internal state appraisal action person affect thoughtful social situation cognition impulsive encounter arousal

Answer 585

socially disadvantaged groups: - have a sense of relative deprivation -> a sense of having less than we feel entitled to - vandalism, rioting criminality/demographics: - gender - race subculture of violence: - subgroup in society (minority) where a higher level of violence is accepted as the norm - awards for violence (gangs) - 'machismo' = challenges/disagreements have to be sorted with violence

Answer 586

culture that endorses male violence as a way of addressing threats to social reputation or economic position

Answer 587

culture that endorses male violence as a way of addressing threats to social reputation or economic position

Answer 588

1. female infidelity damages a man's reputation, especially in honour cultures 2. a man's reputation can be partly restored by exacting retribution (punishment) 3. cultural values of female loyalty and sacrifice & male honour can validate abuse in a relationships

Answer 589

- desensitised from stuff on the tv - disinhibitory effect of watching an excessive amount of sanitised violence - tv and games show aggressors as the good guys who dont get punished/ sanitised - social learning theory = model behaviour

Answer 590

- griffiths (1997) = aggression increases in young children but no in teenagers - van schie and wiegman (1997) = no significant relationship with time spent gaming and aggression levels

Answer 591

media can trigger violence as an AUTOMATIC REACTION to aggressive scenes neo-associationist analysis = thinking about an act facilitate its performance / antisocial acts memory has a priming effect (schemas) for aggression: - viewing film > violent > thoughts/feelings/action > aggressive behaviour

Answer 592

the mere presence of a weapon increases the probability that it will be used aggressively

Answer 593

exposure of men to pornography was connected to sexual assault and rape myths (e.g. women lead men and then cry rape)

Answer 594

1. exposure to violence will cause men to become callous and be desensitised to female violence 2. exposure to porn will contribute to the development of negative attitudes towards women

Answer 595

women's life experiences and gender socialisation routinely include experiences of sexual objectification

Answer 596

Social dilemma in which cooperation by all benefits all but competition by all harms all

Answer 597

Transfer of meaningful information from one person to another

Answer 598

lead to eating disorders, depression and sexual dysfunction

Answer 599

women are slightly more likely than men to use physical aggression: - evolutionary perspective = human fear is adaptive human emotional response to threat that reduces exposure to physical danger - biological perspective - oxytocin = released when in danger -> mediates stress reduction from fear - intimate partner violence = oxytocin is more pronounced when with an intimate partner - cultural norms = western women equal/exceed men in their level of aggression

Answer 600

men are more violent and do more harm than females

Answer 601

Meaningful body movement and postures

Answer 602

the world is a predictable place where good things happen to good people and bad things to bad people

Answer 603

Sounds made by one person to another

Answer 604

Words placed in sequence

Answer 605

factors of proximity, stress and power that are associated with the cycle of abuse in families

Answer 606

- learnt patterns of aggression - proximity of family members (annoyance or frustration) - stresses (financial difficulties, unemployment) - division of power in traditional nuclear families (favouring the man) - high alcohol consumption

Answer 607

Words placed in sequence and the context in which this is done

Answer 608

View that language determines thought and therefore people who speak different languages see the world in very different ways

Answer 609

- preserve social order - vehicles for positive social change

Answer 610

aggression that is given formal or informal recognition and social legitimacy by being incorporated into rules and norms

Answer 611

frame of mind that characterises unquestioning obedience where people as agents transfer personal responsibility to the person giving orders

Answer 612

- depends on level of explanation of aggression - educational opportunities (media courses) - peace studies = multidisciplinary movement dedicated to the study and promotion of peace e.g. teaching children how to build self-esteem without being aggressive

Answer 613

attractive children got higher grades from their teachers and were more popular attractive adults were more successful in their jobs, liked more, more physically healthy and more sexually attractive

Answer 614

female = babies will gaze longer youthful person = more honest

Answer 615

genes: - reproductive fitness = people guess whether we have good genes by physical health, youthful appearance, body symmetry - good genes hypothesis ^^ fertility: - women near ovulation is more likely to prefer a man who is competitive with other men seeing red: - red as a background colour = increases a woman's sexual attractiveness - symbol of readiness for mating hourglass figure: - good gene hypothesis = signifies youthfulness, good health - western = smaller WHR - foraging = larger WHR

Answer 616

humans have evolved to prefer average faces to those with unusual or distinctive features

Answer 617

men = physical attractiveness female = status

Answer 618

warmth - trustworthiness - showing care and intimacy vitality - attractiveness - signs of health and reproductive fitness status - resources - being socially prominent and financially sound

Answer 619

1. proximity - do they live or work close by / accessible / low cost 2. familiarity - do we feel that we know them / mere exposure effect (x not always x) 3. similarity - are they people who are like us / similar attitudes / cultures

Answer 620

- social matching - assortative mating = non-random coupling of individuals based on their resemblance to each other on one or more characteristics

Answer 621

measure of self-esteem based on feeling socially included or excluded by people

Answer 622

less willing to date inter-racially, but likely to if homosexual

Answer 623

personality: - similarities were not as important as personality - warmth/kindness/intelligence self-disclosure and trust: - sharing intimate info and feelings with another person - important in long-term intimacy - trust sustains relationships

Answer 624

north americans - individualism (assertive, dominant) koreans - collectivism (generous, sensitive)

Answer 625

- students rated a fictious stranger as more attractive when they shared similar attitudes - stressful background factors (feeling hot or crowded) reduced the attractiveness of the stranger

Answer 626

reinforcement-affect model: - model of attraction which says that we like people who are around when we experience a positive feeling (reinforces) automatic activation: - attitudes that have a string evaluative link to situational cues are more likely to automatically come to mind from memory

Answer 627

social exchange: - people often use a form of everyday economics when they weigh up costs and rewards before deciding what to do behaviourism: - explaining observable behaviour with reinforcements

Answer 628

cost-reward ratio = what will it cost me to get a positive reward from that person?

Answer 629

we try to minimise the costs and maximise the rewards

Answer 630

standard that develops over time, allowing us to judge whether a new relationship is profitable or not

Answer 631

- differences between people in how they percieve rewards and costs - differences within the person based on varying CLs, both iver time and across different contexts

Answer 632

defines a relationship as equitable when the ratio of inputs to outcomes are seen to be the same by partners: two main situations: 1. mutual exchange of resources (marriage) 2. exchange where limited resources must be distributed (judge awarding compensation) e.g. jack's outcomes = jill's outcomes jack's inputs = jill's inputs

Answer 633

the fairness of the outcome of a decision (fair allocation of resources)

Answer 634

the fairness of the procedures used to make a decision (fair procedures that may or not result in equal allocation of resources)

Answer 635

women = equality norm men = equity norm

Answer 636

Pervasive tendency to consider behaviour to reflect underlying and immutable, often innate properties of people or the groups they belong to

Answer 637

the urge to from connections and make contact with people = form positive and long lasting interpersonal relationships - our need to affiliate and be in a group is instinct and innate

Answer 638

Non-linguistic accompaniments of speech (stress, pitch, speed, tone, pauses)

Answer 639

The way in which something is said (like accent or language)

Answer 640

Features of speech style that convey information about mood, context, status and group membership

Answer 641

Research methodology to measure peoples attitudes towards a speaker based solely on speech style

Answer 642

reduce anxiety: 1. distractions 2. social comparison theory - comparing our behaviours to establish a correct or socially approved way of acting

Answer 643

Standard, high-status, spken variety of english

Answer 644

Application and extension of social identity theory to deal with language behaviour of ethnolinguistic groups

Answer 645

state of apathy and depression noted among institutional infants deprived of close contact with a caregiver

Answer 646

Social group defined principally in terms of its language

Answer 647

infants needs nurturing as well as food

Answer 648

tendency of an infant to maintain close physical proximity with the mother or primary caregiver

Answer 649

Concept describing objects feature of an inter-ethnic context that influence language, and ultimately the cultural survival or disappearance of an ethnolinguistic group

Answer 650

STATUS VARIABLES - Economic control of destiny - Consensually high self-esteem - Pride in the groups past - Respected language of international repute DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES -Large numbers concentrated in ancestral homeland -Favourable ingroup-outgroup numerical proportion - Low emigration rate - High birth rate - Low incidence of mixed ingroup-outgroup marriage INSTITUTION SUPPORT VARIABLES - Good representation of language in national or territorial institutions (Government media, schools, universities, church

Answer 651

descriptions of the nature of people's close relationships, thought to be established in childhood

Answer 652

secure -> trust others, no abandonment issues avoidant -> uncomfortable when close to other people anxious -> abandonment issues, scared other's wont reciprocate intimacy

Answer 653

bowlby was right = attachment is a process throughout life rather than just infancy: secure -> easy to get close to others and have long-lasting relationships avoidant -> less comfortable / jealous / cheat anxious -> fall in love more easily and more emotional

Answer 654

close relationships provide a context that elicits strong emotions due to the increased probability of behaviour interrupting interpersonal expectations

Answer 655

Individual group members representation of the objective ethnolinguistic vitality of their group

Answer 656

a combination of emotions thoughts and actions which are powerful, and associated with intimate relationships

Answer 657

Modification of speech style to the context of a face-to-face interindividual conversation

Answer 658

Accent or speech style shift towards that of the other person

Answer 659

Accent or speech style shift away from that of the other person

Answer 660

Modification of verbal and non-verbal communication styles to the context of a face to face interaction - an extension of speech accommodation theory to incorporate non-verbal communication

Answer 661

1. Strength of ethnolinguistic identification 2. Number of alternative identities available 3. Number of high-status alternative identities available 4. Subjective vitality perceptions 5. Social beliefs regarding the possibility of passing linguistically into the dominant group

Answer 662

passionate love - intense absorption in another person (arousal) companionate love - caring and affection for another person that arises from sharing time together

Answer 663

- Glean information about feelings and intentions of others - Regulate interactions - Express intimacy - Establish dominance or control - Facilitate goal attainment

Answer 664

Cultural and situational rules that dictate how appropriate it is to express emotions in a given context

Answer 665

Tendency to gaze fixedly at lower-status speaker

Answer 666

Linguistics of body communication

Answer 667

Gestures that repplace or stand in for spoken language

Answer 668

Study of interpersonal distance

Answer 669

romantic love is a product of 3 interacting variables: 1. cultural determinant that sees love as a state 2. presence of appropriate love object (e.g. norm is a person of opposite sex and age similar) 3. emotional arousal, that is felt when interacting with an appropriate love object

Answer 670

Intimate - up to 0.5m Personal - 0.5-1.25m Social - 1.25-4m public - 4-8m

Answer 671

bridge = tilt, sway and wobble men walked along the bridge and females asked them to do a questionnaire and gave them her number -> LOTS CALLED! = arousal enhances romance!

Answer 672

sternberg - ultimate form of love = passion/intimacy/commitment

Answer 673

3 factors: - passion - commitment - intimacy infatuation = passion empty love = commitment liking = intimacy fatuous = passion & commitment romantic = passion & intimacy companionate love = commitment and intimacy

Answer 674

people who care about us and be there for us in stressful situations

Answer 675

marital satisfaction increases where there is an overlap of social support networks partners adapt and modify their expectations of one another

Answer 676

- domestic partners - lovers -companions and friends - supported by a support network

Answer 677

1. personal dedication - positive attraction to a partner 2. moral commitment - sense of obligation 3. constraint commitment - factors that make it costly to leave a relationship (no alternatives/financial)

Answer 678

1. new life is the only solution 2. alternative partners available 3. expectation that relationship is gonna fail 4. lack of commitment to a continuing relationship

Answer 679

passive stance: 1. loyal - wait for improvement 2. neglect - deterioration continues active stance: 1. voice behaviour - work for improvements 2. exit behaviour - end the relationship

Answer 680

we use cognitive tactics to maintain relationships when the judge their partner to be less than ideal: - enhance a partners virtues and downplay their faults - lower their expectations to fit more closely with what their partner offers = partner regulation = strategy that encourages a partner to match an ideal standard of behaviour = self-regulation = strategies that we use to match our behaviour to our ideal standard

Answer 681

4 phases that partners pass through: 1. INTRAPSYCHIC PHASE: - "i can't stand this any more" - focus on partner's behaviour - pros and cons - consider costs of withdrawal 2. DYADIC PHASE: - "id be justified in withdrawing" - confrontation - negotiate - attempt repair 3. SOCIAL PHASE: - "i mean it" - gossip with support group negotiate post-dissolution state with partner 4. GRAVE-DRESSING PHASE: - "it's inevitable now" - get over public announcement of own version of breakup

Answer 682

bound - theory and data conditioned by a specific cultural background blind - theory and data untested outside the host culture e.g. most of the world using USA textbooks - lab experiments dont consider cultural differences

Answer 683

systems of shared meanings

Answer 684

early social psychology - study of the collective mind (german)

Answer 685

secularisation - new focus on the here and now rather than the afterlife industrialisation - mobile to seek work / portable personal identity enlightenment - ability for people to manage their social lives and maintain culture

Answer 686

descriptive study of a specific society, based on fieldwork researcher becomes immersed in the everyday life of the people

Answer 687

study of human behaviour under diverse cultural conditions

Answer 688

1. are western psychological theories valid in other cultures? 2. are there psychological constructs that are culture-specific 3. how can we evolve a psychology with universal relevance

Answer 689

EMIC = behaviour specific to a single culture ETIC = behaviour universal to all cultures

Answer 690

cultural = qualitative and discourse analytic methods cross-cultural = traditional social psychology methods , questionnaires and interviews and statistical analysis

Answer 691

- indians are less likely than north americans to make dispositional rather than situational attributions = FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION BIAS & CORRESPONDENCE BIAS - correspondence = western

Answer 692

individualistic = blamed on others / anger/resentment collectivist = repair harm and sustain relationships

Answer 693

tendency for people who are instructed to supress their stereotypes to show evidence of stronger stereotype expression

Answer 694

property of a group that makes it seem coherent and distinct

Answer 695

conformity rates are lower in western cultures and higher in non-western

Answer 696

- middle east countries and US = machismo (IZZAT) - culture of honour - endorse male violence for social reputation

Answer 697

east = interdependent self-construal (social relations) west = independent self-construal (self-concept)

Answer 698

independent: - competitive / strives to feel good about theirself / personal attributes / achievement 1. autonomous 2. self-contained -individual interdependent: - collective / cooperative / responsible for others 1. flexible 2. shared 3. collectivist

Answer 699

- values - degree of individualism and collectivism - orientation around social norms - social comparisons to ground social identity -

Answer 700

higher-order concept thought to provide a structure for organising attitudes values are socially constructed

Answer 701

types of concepts, mechanisms and language used to explain a phenomenon

Answer 702

1. power distance - degree to which unequal power in institutions and practices is accepted 2, uncertainty avoidance - planning for stability in dealing with life's uncertainties 3. masculinity-femininity - valuing attributes that are either typically masculine or feminine 4. individualism-collectivism - whether one's identity is determined by personal choices or by the collective or by the collective

Answer 703

1. openness to change vs conservatism 2. self-enhancement vs self-transcendence

Answer 704

1. western european nations are individualistic and egalitarian 2. eastern european nations are indivdualistic and hierarchal 3. asian nations are collectivist and hierarchical

Answer 705

tend towards cooperation, social support, equality and honesty = collectivist

Answer 706

tend towards need for achievement, loneliness= individualist

Answer 707

tightness = asia looseness = western

Answer 708

two-person game where both parties are torn between competition and cooperation, and depending on mutual choices, both can win or lose

Answer 709

values interact with their group's orientation towards making intergroup comparisons: - groups have comparative or non-comparative ideology - ingroups bias = collectivist + comparative ideology

Answer 710

rural areas

Answer 711

analysis based on structures of meaningful social relationships that recur across cultures

Answer 712

communal sharing - experience solidarity and collective identity (lovers, families) authority ranking - linear hierarchy equality matching - balance in a social exchange (car-pooling) market pricing -

Answer 713

bringing members of opposing social groups together will improve intergroup relations and reduce prejudice and discrimination

Answer 714

native speakers are less attentive of people with a people with a foreign accent

Answer 715

display rules - cultural rules that dictate how appropriate it is to express emotions in a given context kinesics - body posture/communication japanese men = less eye contact than western men

Answer 716

process where individuals learn about the rules of behaviour characteristic of another culture and internalise them - culture change can lead to acculturative stress

Answer 717

integration - maintaining home culture but also relating to dominant culture POPULAR / LEAST STRESSFUL assimilation - embrace dominant culture and forget home culture separation - maintain home culture and be isolated from dominant culture marginalisation - giving up home culture and failing to relate properly to dominant culture

Answer 718

psychology created by and for specific cultural group - that culture can only be understood from their perspective - develop theories and apply them within the same culture

Answer 719

set of interrelated concepts and principles concerning which theories are appropriate

Answer 720

psychology intended to generate positive social change through direct intervention

Answer 721

tendency for people to embrace fundamentalist belief systems in order to find a distinct and prescriptive identity that resolves the sense of anomie and moral vacuum in modern industrialised society

Answer 722

a person's beliefs should be understood based on our own culture

Answer 723

total assimilation - adopt only host culture melting pot - assimilate and modify host culture

Answer 724

laissez faire - cultural diversity occurs without planning active - exists through pllanning