Cognitive Psychology Semester 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Are brain areas specialised for particular functions?
A
LOW-level processes have SOME degree of FUNCTIONAL SPECIALISATION.
2
Q
What is an example of functional specialisation?
A
The primary visual cortex
3
Q
How does the brain work for complex processes?
A
Coordination and integration of different areas across the brain.
4
Q
What does cognitive neuroscience mean?
A
Focuses on the influence of brain structures on mental processes and shows the areas of the brain responsible for different cognitive processes
5
Q
What studies are usually used with neuropsychology?
A
Case studies
6
Q
What is the definition of cognitive neuropsychology?
A
Study of brain-damaged patients to understand cognition
7
Q
What are three assumption of neurospychology?
A
- Modularity
- Dissociation
- Double Dissociation
8
Q
What is an assumption of cognitive neuroscience?
A
Functional specialisation
9
Q
What is Modularity?
A
Assumes the mind is constructed by different modules (each being a cognitive process e.g. language module). And processes can be separated out.
10
Q
What is a module and why is it different to functional specialisation?
A
A module is a theoretical system that is a cognitive process whereas functional specialization is a specific area of the brain controlling a function.
11
Q
What is dissociation in terms of neuropsychology?
A
If part of a brain gets damaged and then you lose a particular function, as it can be assumed that that part of the brain is responsible for that function.
12
Q
What is double dissociation?
A
Two related mental processes are shown to function independently of each other using two case studies.
13
Q
What is a famous case study of double dissociation?
A
HM (Scolville & Milner, 1957)
- Had epilepsy
- Surgical removal of hippocampus
- After surgery, STM is good
- Can’t transfer information to LTM
&
KF (Shallice & Warrington, 1970)
- In a motorcycle accident
- Damaged his Parietal Lobe
- Had poor STM after damage
- STM tested by memorising numbers
- Average ppl remember 5-7, KF only remember 2
- Could still make LTM
14
Q
Name 2 positive evaluation points for cognitive neuropsychology
A
- Enables identification of brain regions required for cognitive tasks.
- Double dissociation is good evidence of processing modules
15
Q
Name 2 negative evaluation points for cognitive neuropsychology
A
- Difficult to compare case studies given the nature of damage being individualized
- Not clear that patient had intact functioning before injury other than patient not reporting difficulties prior
16
Q
What two parts is computational cognitive science broken down into?
A
-Computational modelling
-Artificial intelligence
17
Q
What is Computational Modelling?
A
Constructs models that helps us understand human cognition.
- modelling underline processes
18
Q
What is artificial intelligence?
A
Designed to produce outcomes that resemble human behaviour
- internal processes may not resemble those in human cognition.
19
Q
What is the connectionist network?
A
The idea that the brain is a big network that is made up of neurons and units that are all connected to each other.
20
Q
What does it mean by activation state?
A
How ‘busy’ your network is.
- How quickly the neurons are firing.
21
Q
What is the weighting of connections?
A
How big are the connections between two places in the brain depending on the amount of activity.
22
Q
What are the learning rules?
A
Adding and linking new pieces of information together.
23
Q
Name three positive evaluation points for computational modeling
A
- Theoretical assumptions are explicit and go into detail.
- Some models can demonstrate learning effects, reflecting human learning behaviour
- If we can recreate processes, we can damage it to understand how damage may impact human processing.
24
Q
Name two negative evaluation points for computational modeling
A
- These models can be mathematically and computationally complex.
- The computational models don’t recognize motivational, emotional, and social factors.
25
What are the three core concepts of cognitive psychology?
1. Serial or Parallel?
2. Automatic or Controlled?
3. Bottom-up or Top-down?
26
What is the difference between serial and parallel processing?
Parallel processing is processing information all in one.
Whereas, serial processing is when you process information sequenctionally
27
What is the study that tries to understand difference between parallel and serial processing using Short-term memory?
Sternberg 1966 - Visual Short-term Memory.
- Participants given list of words (2, 4, or 6 words).
- Had a small intermission
- Given a word and participants had to decide if it was in their list of study words
PREDICTION
- If we could look at all words at once, wouldn't matter if we have 2, 4, or 6 words (Parallel processing would not change RT)
- Serial processing means it would make RT longer for more words.
The results supported Serial Processing. RT increased by 38ms per additional word
28
What is the study looking at whether reading words is parallel or serial processing?
Weekes (1997)
Do we take words in a unit or read each letter individually?
Had different words that were non-words and real words that ranged between 3-7 letters.
Participants had to decide if they were real or non-words.
Real words RT is not affected by the length of words - suggests parallel processing
Non-words RT affected by the length of words - suggest serial processing
29
List at least 3 aspects of automatic processing
1. Fast and efficient
2. No attention needed
3. No conscious guidance
4. Unlimited capacity
30
List at least 3 aspects of controlled processing.
1. Slow response
2. Demands attention
3. Easily disrupted
4.Limited capacity
5. Needs effortful control
31
Give one example of controlled processing and one example of automatic processing.
Automatic processing - face recognition
Controlled processing - Completing a puzzle
32
Match up bottom-up and top-down processing to data-driven and knowledge-driven.
Bottom-up = data-driven
Top-down = knowledge-driven
33
Give a brief explanation of bottom-up processing
-Stimulus influences perception.
-Start from basic features and integrate into whole
34
Give a brief explanation of top-down processing
-Knowledge influences perception
- Expectations and experiences used to recognise stimuli
35
What are the four pieces of information that we store about a word?
The meaning (semantic info)
The way it looks (orthographic info)
The way it sounds (phonological info)
The way it's used (syntactical info)
36
What is spreading activation?
A node gets excited and activates semantically related words in the network
37
Give two definitions of the mind
The mind controls and creates mental functions such as perception.
The mind is a system that creates representations of the world so we can live in it.
38
What is Donder's (1868) simple reaction time task?
Participants saw a light and were required to push a button.
39
What was the choice reaction time task by Donder (1868)?
Pressing a corresponding button, so a decision has to be made.
i.e. push a green button if they see a green light.
40
What were the results when Doner (1868) compared the simple RT task with the choice RT task?
There was a slower RT when participants had to make a choice.
41
What is structural introspection?
Build components of experience using introspection which forces us to realize thoughts are unconscious and there is no way to test the claim.
42
What is behaviourism?
Behaviour is observable, stimuli is measurable, events are recordable,
43
What are the differences between structural models and process models?
Structural models
-Represents structures of the brain
-Mimic appearance
-The purpose is to simplify
-Usually function specific
Process model
-How processes operate
Does not represent structure or location
44
What happens if you pay attention to a sensory memory?
It is encoded into short term memory.
45
What does the brain do to put a long term memory into short-term memory?
Retrieval
46
What happens if memories are not rehearsed?
They are lost
47
What are three types of short-term memory retrieval tasks?
Free recall (unprompted, any order)
Cued recall (cue is given)
Serial recall (recalled in order)
48
What do we use recognition tests for?
Short-term memory - participant is shown something and states if they have seen it before or not
Can also be used in Long-term memory testing.
49
What are the differences between recall and recognition testing?
Recall has two stages -
selection of items from memory
familiarity decision
Recognition -
only has familiarity with decision
can be used with long-term memory testing
50
List at least three factors that affect recall
Attention
Motivation
Interference & Serial Recall Effect
Gender
Food consumption
Physical activity
Trauma
51
What are the two parts of the serial position effect that influence recall ability?
- regency effect: Remember the stuff at the end
Because you remember the most recent items
- primacy effect: Remember stuff at the beginning
When LTM has encoded earlier items
52
What psychologist suggested that STM is based on sound?
Conrad (1964)
53
True or False? When letters sound similar, there are fewer serial recall errors?
False! There are more serial recall errors when letters sound similar such as x and s.
54
What is auditory dominance by Conrad (1964)?
Letters that are visually similar may result in more recall errors
55
What does our working memory do?
Transfers information to and from short-term memory and long-term memory
56
Who proposed the working memory model?
Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
57
What is the function of the central executive?
It is the controller
Does not store memories
Coordinated how information is used
58
Name the 2 memory buffers
Phonological loop -
Visuospatial sketchpad
59
What are these the two components of?
Phonological store
Articulatoryrehearsal processes
60
What are the roles of the phonological store?
Acts as an inner ear
Holds input for a few seconds in a speech-based form
Spoken words enter the store directly
Written words are first converted into articulatory code then enters the store
61
What is the role of the articulatory rehearsal processes
Acts as an inner voice to rehearse information from the phonological store.
It is an active process to keep items in the loop
62
What is some supporting evidence for the phonological loop?
1. Conrad's experiment that similar-sounding letters are harder to remember
2. Articulatory suppression - disrupting memorising by repeating a word out loud
3. Word length effect - recall decreases as word length increases
63
What is the use of the visuospatial sketchpad?
It forms a picture in your mind to hold visual and spatial information
64
What is the new third buffer called by Baddeley?
The episodic buffer
65
Why has it been assumed that humans have another buffer?
We hold so much information such as strings of numbers or long sentence
66
What are the different types of Long-term memory
Explicit (conscious, declarative)
Implicit (not conscious, nondeclarative)
67
What are the two types of explicit long-term memory?
Episodic and semanatic
68
What are the three types of implicit long-term memory?
Priming
Procedural memory
Conditioning
69
What is priming in long-term memory?
Exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus.
70
What is procedural long-term memory?
Memory of how to do different things
71
What is conditioning in long-term memory?
Pairing a stimulus with a neutral stimulus to create an association
72
What is episodic memory?
Personal experiences
Tulving (1985) - mental time travelling
73
What is semantic memory?
Stored knowledge and facts
74
What evidence do we have to support the decision between episodic and semantic memory?
Brain damage f KC who had a motorcycle accident who had damage to the hippocampus and had damage to episodic memory
The patient in Italy lost semantic memory after illness did not recognise words or facts but could remember personal information
Brain imaging supports the division but also shows overlap
75
What is morphing in long-term memory?
Where you will lose the episodic memory but retain the semantic memory
e.g. remember info learned in the lecture but not the day of the lecture.
76
What is the hierarchial network model?
Don't need to remember everything.
There are hierarchical nodes and we infere from semantic memory
77
What is the hierarchial network model?
Don't need to remember everything.
There are hierarchical nodes and we infer from semantic memory
78
What is the spreading activation theory of memory?
There are cognitive units that are interconnected in a network and retrieval is performed through spreading activation (Anderson, 1983)
79
How do we encode into long-term memory?
Using elaborative rehearsal
- associating meaning to make it more effective to transfer to LTM.
- deeper level of processing is better in encoding and retrieval.
80
What is distribution of practice effect?
Cramming is not effective, spaced inervals and rehearsal and retrieval are better
81
True or False? Emotional arousal regulates the strength of memory?
True
82
Why are the stress hormones cortisol and epinephrine important to memories?
Emotional states reduce the stress hormones which better consolidate memories in the amygdala
83
Where are explicit memories stored (episodic and semantic)?
Hippocampus
Neocortex
Amygdala
84
Where are implicit memories stored (motor memories)?
Basal Ganglia
Cerebellum
85
Where is short-term (working memory) stored?
Mostly prefrontal cortex
86
What are the three types of forgetting and what do they mean?
Incidental forgetting - without intention
Motivated forgetting - intentionally forgetting
Forgetting curve - over time without rehearsal
87
What is Jot's law in consolidation?
If there are two equally as strong memories at one point in time, the oldest memory will take longer to be forgotten
88
What is synaptic consolidation?
New memories take longer to solidify because it requires structural changes (Dudai, 2004)
89
What is systemic consolidation?
Hippocampus is initially responsible for memory but it continually activates other brain areas that were involved in the initial experience of the memory (smell triggering a memory)
90
Are unique or similar experiences easier to remember?
Unique experiences because similar experiences interfere which each other.
91
What is retroactive interference?
New memories make it more difficult to refer to memories further back
92
What is proactive interference?
When old memories interfere with new memories
93
What happens first? Sensation or perception?
Sensation
94
What is a figure-ground illusion?
An illusion where there is an image of a figure or an image in the background, not at the same time
95
What is perception?
Maintaining stability of the world to make sense of it
96
What are the three stages process of perception?
analysis - synthesis - perception
97
What is a distal object?
The stimulating object or sound
98
What is olfaction and what is gustation?
Olfaction = smell
Gustation = taste
99
What is proximal stimulation?
How the information is received - sound by the ears
light - by the eyes
100
What is the Gestalt approach to form perception?
attempts to explain the way the human brain interprets information based on visual cues like proximity, similarity, and closure.
101
What is the law of Pragnanz in Gestalt psychology?
Brain interprets complex shapes in the simplest way
102
What are the problems with the Gestalt approach?
Principles don't explain WHY they happen
Does not offer any clues as to WHERE in the brain it is happening
103
What is bottom-up processing in perception? (data-driven)
Begin with basic stimuli and work up.
For example, Gestalt
104
What did Gibson say about biological tuning (perception)
We are biologically tuned to respond to certain shapes
105
What are template theories (Selfridge and Neisser 1960)?
Perceive shapes in the world by matching them to templates that we have in our head
106
What are two problems with template theories?
If we think of the letter a, it can be wrote so many different ways and in many different fonts.
Where would we fit all of the templates
107
What are prototype theories (rosch)?
Stores the closest version of an object and compares to it
108
What are feature theories/pandemonium model?
We store individual small parts that we can make up parts rather.
For example, A is made up of three lines
109
What is the difference between Navons local and global features?
Local processing is processing information in a smaller, more detailed way
Global processing is processing information in a bigger whole picture way
e.g. letter H made of of little L's
Little L's - local
Big H - global
110
What is Biedermen (1987) recognise by cognition theory?
Recognise the world through viewpoint invariant geons
This means we recognise the shape no matter what angle it is
These components are quickly identified
111
What is top-down processing in perception?
Start to engage with the world around us through experience
Drove by experience and expectations
112
What is Marr's conceptual theory?
Hybrid of top-down, bottom-up
Raw data in the retina is categorised into features
It is descriptive but goes off experience too
113
Is face recognition mostly between-category discrimination or within-category discrimination?
Within-category discrimination
114
Briefly describe the Bruce & Young (1986) face recognition model
1. We have view-centered description which allows us to recognise a face from different angles.
2. Expression-independent descriptions - recognise a face without any expression
3. Face recognition units - Structural information about known faces
4. Person identity nodes - information we know about that person
5. Name generation - putting a name to a face
115
What is the difference between configural and feature processing
~Configural processing is more of a holistic view and seeing the face as one single unit.
~Featural processing is putting individual parts together to see a face
116
What is the distinctiveness effect?
Distinctive faces are better to regonise (Bruce et all, 1994)
117
What is the effect called where participants saw a house, stickman, and a face the right way up and then flipped upside down, where people were better when things were the right way up.
It was more difficult when faces where upside down.
The face inversion effect (Yin, 1969)
118
Why does inversion of faces make facial recognition so much more difficult?
Inversion affects configural processing (viewing it as a whole.)
Forces us to change the processing to featural processing.
119
What is the whole-over-part effect? (Tanaka and Farah, 1993)?
Talk about the study...
In an experiment, participants saw noses and heard a name.
They then saw the two noses and were asked to pair the nose with the correct name.
In another condition, the nose is shown on the same face and they hear a name.
Again they were asked to pair the name with the correct nose.
Found that people were better when the nose was shown on the face.
Indicates that a configural wholistic processing is important.
120
What is the chimeric face effect? (Young, Hellawell & Hay, 1987)
Viewing the top half of one person's face with the bottom half of another face.
When aligned, the face does not look distorted, it looks like a whole new face.
Makes it difficult to recognise the individual faces and who they belong to
121
What is the Thatcher effect? (Thomson, 1980)
Subtle feature changes are harder to recognise when the photo is inverted.
This is thought to be because when the face is upside down, it disrupts holistic processing.
122
What is Hole et al's (2003) study on distorting faces?
Participants were shown faces that were manipulated, inverted, sheer, horizontally stretched, and vertically stretched.
results showed that the only thing that impacted a persons recognition was when the face was inverted.
123
What is the main key finding of face recognition?
That we recognise and view faces configuraley
124
Is face recognition innate? (johnson et al 1991)
Showed newborn babies different cutouts of faces, just face features jumbled up or plain cutouts.
Measured by how much the baby looks at the cutout.
When stimuli resembled a face, they were more likely to move and pay attention.
125
What did simon et al (2002) find about innate facial recognition?
Babies were more responsive when stimuli was more top heavy (resembles a face)
Used dots, when there were more dots at the top than te bottom, babies payed more attention as it resembled a face
126
What did Turati et al (2002) find about innate facial recognition?
Stimuli was still more responded to when top heavy, however, it did not matter if there was symmetary.
127
True or false, in a study by Stephan & Caine (2007) they found that people struggled to recognise faces the most when noses were taken away
False! It was when the eyes were taken away
128
What is theory of mind?
Ability to understand, thoughts, beliefs and emotions of other people
129
How is facial recognition affected for people with ASD?
Poorer performance in identity recognition, emotional expression, gaze direction, gender and lip reading
130
What did the whole-over-part experiment show for people with ASD?
Only the mouth being in a face helped children with ASD recognise a face.
They are selectively able to choose which processing they prefer.
131
What is prosopagnosia?
Impairment in recognising faces
132
What is a case study for acquired prosopagnosia?
Patient PG (young et al, 1988).
Suffered injury to the right hemisphere and impaired the structure of encoding faces
133
In the four cases of acquired prosopagnosia, which parts of the facial recognition model were impacted?
PG - ONLY RECOGNISE THERE WAS A FACE
PH - face recognition, personal identification, name generation
ME - personal identification, name generation
EST - name generation
134
What is the difference between left hemisphere damage and right hemisphere damage when looking at inverted faces?
Right-hemisphere-damaged patients performed worse than left-hemisphere-damaged patients when faces were upright.
Thus, the right hemisphere may disrupt configural processing
135
What is located in the right hemisphere that helps us form faces?
fusiform gyrus/face area
136
Give two definitions of attention
1. A mechanism of continuous cognitive processing
2. A mechanism to select information for further processing
137
True or false? The more we practice a task, the less attention it requires
True
138
What is parallel processing?
Multitasking
139
What is dual tasking?
Our attention is divided which means information must be processed in parallel.
Both tasks must be performed at the same time with no delays or there may be a gap in which there is a switch in attention.
140
What did Schaffer (1975) find?
Those who were well practiced in touch typing could easily multitask and recite nursery rhymes with less than 10% loss of accuracy.
141
Does the attention required to do a task depend on the task that is being done?
Yes it does
142
Why does it require a different amount of attention depending on the tasks that are being performed?
Two tasks may not occupy the same place in terms of cognitive processing
143
What does the multiple resource theories state?
There are different types of attention which depends on the task that is being performed
144
What did Brooks (1968) find about the difference between auditory and visual processing?
There are different types of attention for auditory and visual
145
What was the study that contradicted the findings of Brooks (1968)?
Driver and Spense (1994)
There were speakers and TVs on the left and right side of the room and the speakers repeated a triplet set of words whilst one of the TVs would show a person miming the words.
Results showed that accuracy was better if the sound and face were on the same side showing that visual and auditory attention cannot be totally separate
146
What is the allocation of attention?
This is that attention can be focused into different areas.
147
What is a supporting study of allocation of attention?
Participants imagine a donut and the hole in the donut had 4 letters in it and 16 letters on the ring.
Showed 2 letters and was required to identify if they were in the hole or on the donut.
When told to direct 90% of their attention to the outer circle and 10% to the inner circle it worked and responses were much faster
- Shows we can allocate our attention
148
What did Posner (1980) point out about covert attention?
Attention can be shifted without eye movement
149
What is the difference between endogenous control and exogenous control?
Endogenous - Controlled by intentions in response to cues
Exogenous - Automatic attention shifts
150
What happens to unwanted material?
Everything is processed to a certain extent but attention allows further processing
151
What are filter theories? Early filter? Late filter?
Early filter - just after the information is processed so no meaning
Late filter - Sensory and semantic (meaning) is processed before filtering
152
What is Cherry (1953)'s cocktail effect? (early filter)
When the brain can filter out other conversations in a room and only focus on one conversation at the party
153
What is used to investigate selective attention and the lateralization of brain function within the auditory system?
Dichotic listening test
154
What happens in the Dichotic listening test?
The task is to listen with one ear to the information that was being delivered and repeat it back after.
Whilst then stating what was happening in the other ear
Results show that participants are rubbish at reporting the unattended stream
However, they could tell when the tone changed or whether the speaker was male or female
- Conclusion: physical characteristics are encoded but not semantic meaning
Late filter added peoples names to the unattended stream and some participants notices, some didn't
155
What is the moveable filter theory?
The position of the filter is under our control and we can pay attention as late or as early as needed
156
What did Heniz (1978) find about the movable filter theory?
two lists of words, some were told to shadow one list based on physical attributes and others were told to shadow based on semantic attributes.
Simultaneously doing a RT task of pressing a button when seeing a light on a screen
RT was slower when remembering the semantic meaning as well as physical
157
What has been found from dooing EEG's from during dichotic tasks?
Shows that processing is different in the auditory cortex depending on attention
158
What are the different types of searches to find something that our brain can do?
Disjunctive- Target is different from distractors in an obvious way (distinctive) One thing is distinct
Conjunctive- More than one feature differentiates the target from the distractors
159
Is disjunctive searching parallel processing or serial processing?
Parallel - you search all at once
Conjunctive - serial but it is slower because you are comparing one feature at a time
160
What is inhibition of return?
Inhibition of return refers to when individuals respond slower to stimuli that have been shown in a previous location that has had an irrelevant stimuli
- It is a reason for not attending to something
- Some situations you cannot help attending to something
161
What is Wenger et al 1987's White bear study?
Participants were told to think aloud for 5 mins but do NOT think of the white bear
When told not to think about the bread, participants did 7 time in 5 minutes on average
162
According to Wenger et al, what is the difference between operating and monitoring process?
Operating - HELPS you think about what you want to think about
Monitoring - Bad because it makes you search for items inconsistent with what you want to think about (bear)
163
What is the definition of vigilance?
the ability to maintain concentrated attention over prolonged periods of time
It is difficult to measure
164
What is the difference between sensitivity and bias with attention?
Sensitivity partially relied on how many are spotted
Bias is how willing someone is to accept something is the thing they are looking for
165
What is signal detection theory?
TO FIND
166
What did Wolfe et al 2005 say about signal detection?
The more rare a target is, the less likely it is to be seen (e.g. a diamond in a pile of rocks)
167
What are the four types of language?
Reading
Speech perception
Writing
Speech production
168
What is semantics?
The study of meaning and how our brain makes sense of these symbols
169
What is syntax?
It is the system in our mind that makes sense of grammar (rules of language) and how to put a sentence together
170
What is pragmatics?
Study of how language is used in a real-life context
171
What is phonology?
Study of how sound relates to language
172
What are the early stages of the development of language (Harley 2008)
0 - 6 weeks: Vegetative sounds
6 weeks: cooing
10 weeks: Laughter
10 weeks - 6 months: vocal play
6 - 10 months: Babbling
173
What are the later stages of language development (Harley 2008)
10 - 18 months: single words
18 months: 2 words
2 years: telegraphic speech
2yrs 6 months: full sentences
174
What are the later stages of language development (Harley 2008)
10 - 18 months: single words
18 months: 2 words
2 years: telegraphic speech
2yrs 6 months: full sentences
175
What are the three language development assumptions (Markman, 1989)
1. Whole object - child attaches label to whole object (e.g. window on a house = house)
2. Mututal exclusivity - Once child knows a label for an object, they won't add another (e.g. penguin only a penguin, not a bird)
3. Taxonomic - Child attaches label to category (e.g. everything with four legs is a horse)
176
How do we produce speech?
Phenomes - The smallest unit of the sound with no meaning
Morphemes - Group phenomes to get the smallest unit of meaning (e.g. 'ed' on the end of a word because it is a sound that adds meaning)
Words - Smallest meaningful unit that can be by itself
Phrases - Small groups of words standing together as a conceptual unit
Sentences - Two parts containing noun phrase and verb phrase
Discourse - Longer connected blocks of language (e.g. conversation)
177
How do we produce sound?
-Generated by energy from our larynx from the vibration of air in our throat
-The vibrations are filtered by the vocal tract which can change shape by us
-Changing shape in vocal tract changes frequency
-Articulators (tongue and teeth) shape the sounds to produce the final sounds
178
What is the process of speaking and listening?
1. Speaker has an idea they want to convey
2. Speaker converts thought into an organized grammatical structure
3. Commands sent to the motor area of the brain to prepare the mouth, lips, teeth, and tongue to do the necessary movements
4. Acoustic signal produced and is received by the listener
5. Listener breaks message up into constituent parts and accesses meaning and utterances
179
What is the process of speaking and listening?
1. Speaker has an idea they want to convey
2. Speaker converts thought into an organized grammatical structure
3. Commands sent to the motor area of the brain to prepare the mouth, lips, teeth, and tongue to do the necessary movements
4. Acoustic signal produced and is received by the listener
5. Listener breaks message up into constituent parts and accesses meaning and utterances
180
What is Levelt's 1999 speech production?
CONSEPTUALISATION
Thinking of something to say
FORMULATION
Figuring out how to express your message using you language skills
ARTICULATION
Move you articulators to create speech sound
181
What did Beattie (1983) say about speech planning?
Speech rate is not consistent
BECAUSE speaking is cognitively complex
Planning speech allows us to speak faster
182
What are spoonerisms?
Switching around two sounds in a sentence (e.g. Hissed my mystery lecture - missed my history lecture)
Only happens when substitutions make actual words
183
What are some problems with speech perception?
Speech segmentation (how do we know where words end and begin)
Co-articulation (Two words sounds mixed together)
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What is Pollack & Picketts (1964) study on decoding speech?
Recorded conversations and asked people in 2 conditions to either identify individual words or sequences of seven words
Results: Better with seven words because they are getting more context (advocates top-down effect)
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What is the Phonemic Restoration Effect? (Warren 1970)
Sometimes when phenomes or words are removed, we can still work out what was there by top-down processing
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What is the categorical perception of sounds?
With speech sounds, there are hard boundaries
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What is the motor theory of speech perception? (Liberman et al. 1967)
As speakers as well, we have the knowledge of the way mouthes move, etc to make sounds.
Speech is easier when we can see the speakers mouth
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What is the revised cohort model? (Marlsen-Wilson 1990 - 1994)
Mental lexicon is activated by sounds when we are listening, all of the similar words are activated - but the more the stream goes on, less are activated.
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What is the uniqueness point?
When there is only one speech candidate left in the cohort model
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What are some problems of reading?
Need fine-tuned visual processing because many words are only distinguishable by subtle differences.
There are lots of fonts so we need some insensitivity
There are different semantic meanings for the same word so context is needed
Words can be combined together to make one word
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What are the main differences of verbal ability and reading ability in children
Verbal ability - early in life, spontaneous and self-organized
Reading ability - Acquired later in life, Requires skills to be taught, needs extensive input from an experienced reader
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What do we do when we read?
Extract meaning from print
Match printed words to words stored in the lexicon
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What is the lexicon?
Hypothetical structure containing all the words we know
Stores four types of information
Orphographic - how the word looks
Phonological - how the word sounds
Semantic - what the word means
Grammatical - is it a non etc, when do we use it?
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How does the mechanism for words we know work differently from unfamiliar words?
Familiar: Extract meaning from print
Match with item in the lexicon memory
Unfamiliar: Use relationship of sound/spelling relationships for pronunciation
Use context if available to support meaning
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According to Eysenck & Keane (2015)
300 words/pm
200ms per word
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What is the word superiority effect? Reicher & Wheeler
Asks if there is a letter in a specific word and the same word jumbled up.
Faster to find if the target letter was present if it was in a real word
This suggests top-down (data-driven)
