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social psychology research method Flashcards

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1
Q

Define the aim

A

The aim of a study is what the research question is - what the researcher wants to find out

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2
Q

Define hypothesis

A

A hypothesis is a statement that is set out in such a way that it is testable, what is to be measured is operationalized and how it is to be measured is operationalized too.

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3
Q

Define operationalization

A

Operationalisation of a variable is making it measurable in practice

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4
Q

What are the different types of hypotheses?

A
  1. Directional hypothesis
  2. Non-directional
  3. Experimental hypothesis
  4. Null hypothesis
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5
Q

Describe directional hypothesis

A

A directional hypothesis states the direction of the hypothesis, for example one condition is more than another

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6
Q

Describe non-directional hypothesis

A

A non-directional hypothesis states that there is a difference

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7
Q

Describe a null hypothesis

A

A null hypothesis is a statement of no difference

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8
Q

Define the experimental hypothesis

A

It is a statement about the effect of the independent variable on the dependant variable

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9
Q

Define questionnaires

A

Questionnaires are self-report data collection tools

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10
Q

Define self-report data

A

Self-report data are present when someone says something about themselves

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11
Q

Define peer-report data

A

Peer-report data are when someone who knows the participant answers questions about the participant

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12
Q

Describe the strength of self-report data

A
  • The data collected is unbiased and valid
  • The individual is answering about themselves, so the data are direct and not likely to be affected by the subjectivity of the researcher
  • Subjectivity can come from the researcher’s views or the way questions are asked
  • The subjectivity is good because this means that the data is more likely to be valid
  • This is because the person concerned is giving the data themselves
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13
Q

Describe the weaknesses of self-report data

A
  • People can be biased when reporting on their own feelings, attitudes, and behaviour
  • This is because of social desirability, people might answer how they think they should answer, which won’t uncover their own meanings
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14
Q

Define objectivity

A

Objectivity is found when results are not affected by the researcher or by preconceived ideas

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15
Q

Define subjectivity

A

The data is affected by individuals, its interpretations is affected by the researchers opinions and knowledge.

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16
Q

What are the different methods that can be used to plan a questionnaire (how to collect the data from the questionnaire)

A
  • A Likert-type/ranked scale item
  • A rating scale item
  • Identifying characteristics (for example circling characteristics you think apply to your best friend such as: mean, caring, unkind)
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17
Q

What is a pilot survey

A
  • A pilot survey is carried out using friends and family as the respondents
  • this tests questions for clarity and allows the researcher to make sure that the required information will be gathered
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18
Q

Define a response bias

A

A response bias is when someone starts off answering “no” to a few questions and continues to answer no, giving a pattern of responses

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19
Q

What are the strengths of questionnaires

A

The same questions are asked of all participants, using a set procedure

  • There is little variation in how people are asked for the information, so the anwsers should not be affected by anything order than the opinions of the respondent
  • This removes any researcher bias, if the researcher doesn’t affect the situation this increases validity as responses are not affected by anybody else - they are the real opinions of the participant

Questionnaires can be repeated easily

  • They can be repeated easily because they use set procedures
  • The same questions are asked of all participants
  • This means they are cheap and replicable because the questionnaire can be easily administered again
  • When a replicable study is repeated and similar data is gathered, the study is reliable so most questionnaires are reliable
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20
Q

What are the weaknesses of questionnaires

A

Questionnaires have to be administered and the way that they are administered challenges their reliability

  • For example, on an occasion a female student might find respondents at a local shopping entre on Saturday and ask them the questions personally
  • On another occasion, a male adult might find respondents at a golf club during Tuesday lunch time and leave the questionnaire at the bar for completion
  • In these two instances, there are several differences that could affect the results such as the sample used
  • A researcher conducting a questionnaire must control the way the questionnaire is administered but differences may still arise
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21
Q

Define close-ended questions

A

Closed questions are where there is a specific answer and no possibility of extending the answer

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22
Q

What are the strengths of close-ended questions

A

All respondents give standard answers so qualitative data can be turned into quantitative data

  • The analysis is straightforward because one set of responses can be compared fairly with another set
  • Percentages and averages can be calculated

Questions are the same for all respondents, the set of answers, and the question wording

  • This can be used to make the sense of the question clear, if the meaning is the same for all respondents then the questionnaire is more reliable
  • Questionnaires using closed questions are more reliable
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23
Q

What are the weaknesses of close-ended questions

A

They force a respondent to choose from a set of answers when the respondent might not agree with any of the answers

  • If the respondents can’t say what they want to say, that makes their responses inaccurate and therefore not valid
  • Questionnaires using closed questions may not be valid

The choice of answers could mean different things to different respondents

  • For example unsure could mean “don’t know” or “sometimes yes and no” but would be scored the same, this would mean that the questionnaire is not producing valid data
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24
Q

Define open-ended questions

A

Open-ended questions are where the respondent can answer freely, without the response being constrained

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25
Q

What are the strengths of open-ended questions

A

The respondents are not forced into specific answers but can say what they want to say

  • Open questions tend to obtain richer, more detailed data
  • The questions can be interpreted by the respondents, if the question asks what the respondents think of prejudice, they reply can interpret what prejudice means to them personally
  • Questionnaires using opened questions are more valid because they enable respondents to talk more about what they really think
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26
Q

What are the weaknesses of open-ended questions

A
  • Open questions are difficult to analyze
    • This is because the answers are likely to be detailed and different from one another
    • There is also a difficulty in displaying the results after being analyzed because the data is qualitative so averages cannot be calculated and the data can’t be displayed in graphs or tables
  • Respondents often fail to complete their answers
    • The responses take longer and it is more difficult to think of the answer than it is to tick a forced-choice set of boxes
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27
Q

Define demand characteristics

A

It is when a participant can guess the aims of a study and so works to help the researcher which means data are not valid

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28
Q

Define standardized procedures/instructions

A

It is when what is said to the participant about a study is the same for all participants so that the findings are not different because of different instructions

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29
Q

Define social desirability

A

It is the tendency to answer in a way that is socially acceptable, and this would mean that the data is not valid

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30
Q

Define qualitative data

A

Qualitative data involves ideas and opinions, people relate a story in answer to a question

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31
Q

What data do open-ended questions produce?

A

Qualitative data

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32
Q

What are the strengths of qualitative data

A

They give detailed information on a subject and allow in-depth analysis

  • In-depth analysis of the way people think adds useful understanding to their thought processes and why they think the way that they do

Qualitative data produces more valid data

  • This is because respondents can say what they really think about an issue and give an in-depth explanation
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33
Q

What are the weaknesses of qualitative data

A

They are hard to analyse in order to compare responses

  • Answers might be so different that they are difficult to cateogrise, and the results can be long and hard to summarise

Qualitative data may be hard to gather because respondents might be reluctant to give an in-depth response

  • In questionnaires, respondants tend to miss out open questions, perhaps they take too long to answer
  • It takes a long time to gather such data compared with gathering quantitative data
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34
Q

Describe thematic analysis

A

Thematic analysis means that the researcher identifies a limited number of themes that reflect their data, by going into great detail in studying their data to develop the themes.

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35
Q

Define coding

A

Coding refers to interpreting and grouping data, coding might take the form of interpreting every idea so that ideas can be grouped

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36
Q

What are the steps of thematic analysis

A
  1. Gather qualitative data using a questionnaire or interview
  2. Begin a reflexive journal to log the process of carrying out the thematic analysis so that the process is transparent
  3. Transcribe the data using no interpretation
  4. Appoint coders, the researcher can be the coder themselves. Coders might not know the aims of the study which can help with the reliability of the results
  5. Each piece of data has to be identified as an idea to shorten what was said and make it manageable
  6. From the ideas, the coder will identify the themes, an idea can be a theme of its own
  7. Themes are named and then the analysis can be reviewed to check where the data fit and to reconsider the ideas in the themes generated
  8. Write up the results
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37
Q

What is a reflexive journal

A

It is a record of the whole thematic analysis process, from starting with the raw data

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38
Q

What are the strengths of thematic analysis

A
  • Thematic analysis is a way of reducing a large amount of data into a manageable summary and conclusion, without losing the validity of the data if the analysis is done well
  • It encourages the researcher to derive themes from the data rather than impose pre-selected themes, this increases the validity of the conclusions
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39
Q

What are the weaknesses of thematic analysis?

A
  • Identifying some themes at the start might be easy but identifying a limited number of themes that represent the data fully is much more difficult and requires time as well as skill from the researcher, it is time consuming
  • The researchers might have themes in mind when doing the initial coding, so validity might be in doubt. The themes come from the researcher rather than from the data as is the intention. It is the case that sometimes a thematic analysis might be driven by theory which is the intention and validity may be questioned.
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40
Q

Define quantitative data

A

Quantitative data involve numbers or percentages of people stating an opinion etc

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41
Q

What data do close-ended questions produce?

A

Quantitative data

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42
Q

What are the strengths of quantitative data?

A
  • They are reliable because the way that they are gathered is controlled sufficiently well for the test to be repeated to see if similar results are found
  • The researcher puts controls into place to make sure that any test can be repeated and give the same results, control of the setting and tools used is important
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43
Q

What are the weaknesses of quantitative data?

A
  • Respondents may be guided by how the questions are set that they do not answer truthfully
    • When writing their opinions in answer to an open-ended question, they are unlikely to lie and rather to skip out the question
    • They may be influenced by demand characteristics as there is a forced-choice of answers which may aim at the point of the questionnaire. They might want to help the researcher so they give the answers they think are wanted.
  • There may be a response bias
    • If the question is listed so that respondents are likely to answer no to a number of questions in a pattern, they might continue to answer no out of habit. It is also possible that a respondent may have a personality trait to disagree or agree all the time.
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44
Q

When are interviews chosen instead of questionnaires?

A
  • When some questions need to be explored more in depth
  • When the respondent may need reassurance
  • When access is difficult
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45
Q

Describe structured interviews

A
  • Follows a set format
  • It is a questionnaire administered by an individual, there may be extra instructions for using the questionnaire such as how to expand on answers
  • They are useful for gathering quantitative and qualitative data, the results can be compared between respondents
  • They can be carried out over the phone or face-to-face
  • They are strongly planned and are more replicable so are likely to yield reliable data
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46
Q

Describe unstructured interviews

A
  • Involve questions that are not in a set format which allows the interviewer to explore the area with further questions arising from the respondent’s answers
  • They are useful when depth and detail are required and when less is known about the topic in question so that issues can be explored
  • Qualitative data are gathered, with corresponding richness and variety
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47
Q

Describe semi-structured interviews

A
  • Have set questions, some of which can be explored by the interviewer
  • Can produce qualitative and quantitative data and can offer insight as well as data that can be compared between respondents
  • A semi-structured interview can be replicable, having set questions, and allow the respondent to lead so getting more valid data
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48
Q

Define unstructured interviews

A

Unstructured interviews means open for the respondent to lead the questions and the course of the interview

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49
Q

Define structured interviews

A

Structured interviews means closed and predetermined so that a respondent has no options and does not lead the direction of the interview

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50
Q

Define semi-structured interviews

A

Semi-structured interview means some fixed questions and some structure regarding what will be asked, there is room for the respondent to lead the direction of the question

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51
Q

What data do interviews gather and why?

A
  • They gather mostly qualitative data in the form of a story or attitudes
  • There can be some quantitative data such as age, length of time in a job, and other personal data
  • The more structured the interview the more likely it is to include quantitative data, the less structured the more qualitative data is likely to be gathered
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52
Q

What data do structured interviews gather?

A

Mostly quantitative and some qualitative

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53
Q

What data do unstructured interviews gather?

A

Mostly qualitative, some quantitative

54
Q

What data do semi-structured interviews gather?

A

Qualitative and quantitative

55
Q

Describe the practical issues that need to be considered when conducting an interview

A
  1. Interview schedules must be prepared in advance so that the aims and research hypotheses are addressed
  2. During an interview, notes can be taken or the interview can be recorded. All notes must be transcribed in full after the interview so that all data is available for analysis.
56
Q

Describe the ethical issues that need to be considered when conducting an interview

A

The participants must:

  1. See the schedule before the interview, so that they can be ready
  2. Agree to the chosen format for recording the interview
  3. They must see the full transcript of the interview afterwards and agree that it is what was said or occured
57
Q

Define transcribing

A

Preparing the data in written form, whether from a video, discussion, or something similar so that it is ready for analysis

58
Q

Define exploratory research

A

Exploratory research is when not much is already known about an area of study and where a researcher wants to start off a research process, finding qualitative in-depth, valid data before choosing a more focused research method

59
Q

How are interviews useful for exploratory research

A
  • Interviews (especially unstructured interviews) are useful if research questions move into an area that is not well researched
  • Qualitative data is useful in exploratory research because depth and detail are gathered, there might be an aim for the interview but not a hypothesis.
  • The aim is likely to be broad as it is exploring an area rather than investigating a certain hypothesis
  • Interviews are useful tools for gathering rich, in-depth qualitative data
60
Q

Why are interviews useful for affecting policy and practice?

A

Interviews are useful in affecting poly and practice because they are likely to yield valid data and can be used to hear the participant’s voice, they tend to uncover personal meanings.

61
Q

What factors can affect interviews

A
  1. Social desirability
  2. Demand characteristics
  3. Response bias
  4. Researcher bias
62
Q

How can the researcher affect the data gathered from interviews

A

The researcher can cause bias by interpreting the data using their own views and judgments

63
Q

Define subjectivity

A

Subjectivity is when the analysis of the results includes input from the person doing the analysis

64
Q

Define objectivity

A

Objectivity is when there is no bias affecting the results, including no bias from the researchers opinions

65
Q

How can you remain objective during an interview?

A
  1. Produce a complete transcript of the interview to ensure that the researchers cannot select what they include in the data
  2. Ensuring that the interviewee sees the results and agrees that they have been accurately recorded
  3. Having another researcher analyse the results
66
Q

What are the advantages of interviews

A

The interviewer can explain questions and explore issues by asking further questions

  • A questionnaire is limited to the questions written down and, even when gathering qualitative data, usually there will be a limited space available
  • When a researcher needs to be able to explain issues to a participant or investigate further, an interview is an ideal method

Interviews obtain in-depth and detailed data that are likely to be valid

  • Interviewees talk in their own words and are not restrcited
  • The data are real-life and true and so are valid
  • For these reasons interview is often a very important part of case studies
67
Q

What are the disadvantages of interviews

A

When asking questions, interviewers might find it hard not to influence the answers given
They might ask in a particular way or with a certain emphasis, the way that they look or act may also affect responses e.g. their facial expressions and tone of voice
For example, interviewees might give different responses to male and female interviewers
These would be forms of researcher bias

68
Q

Define target population

A

The target population is all the people that the study is about - those whom the findings will be applied

69
Q

Define sampling

A

Sampling is done when not all members of a target population can be involved in a study, sampling involves choosing participants from a target population

70
Q

Define representative

A

The people chosen as participants represent the target population, therefore they need to have the characteristics of the target population

71
Q

What factors does sample size depend on

A

Sample size depends on the confidence interval and confidence level

72
Q

What is the confidence interval

A

How far it is thought that the answers might not be reliable/valid

73
Q

What is the confidence level

A

The percentage of the sample that is likely to represent the population

74
Q

To decide on sample size what must you know?

A
  • The size of the sampling frame (those you are choosing from)
  • The confidence interval chosen
  • The confidence level chosen
75
Q

Define random sampling

A

It is when everyone in the sampling frame has an equal chance of being picked each time a participant is chosen, it is the most representative as nobody is excluded from being chosen.

76
Q

Describe random sampling

A
  • Gives every participant an equal chance of being chosen
  • Everyone in the target population is available for selection each time a participant is picked out
  • The target population is reduced to a manageable sampling frame
  • The participants are chosen at random e.g picking their names out of a hat
77
Q

Define sampling frame

A

It is the people available to choose a sample from, from the target population

78
Q

What are the advantages of random sampling

A

There is no bias in the way that participants are chosen
Everyone has an equal opportunity of being chosen and no one is systematically excluded from the sample
So the sample is more likely to be representative of the target population

It is clear to everyone how the sample was chosen
Each step of the process can be explained and understood
When studies are carried out scientifically, their results and conclusions are more widely recognised and can be added to the body of psychological knowledge
With random sampling, any possible bias can be worked out mathematically and taken into account

79
Q

What are the disadvantages of random sampling

A
  • It is difficult to ensure that everyone in the target population/sampling frame is available to be included in the sample, which may be cause bias
    • There is a problem, for example in getting the names of people due to the Data protection act 1998
    • Even if everyone’s names were to be included, it would not have been known if they are available to take part
    • So even if random sampling took place, it would not mean that all those chosen would want to be a part of the study so there could be bias
  • Even with random sampling, where everyone has an equal chance of being selected, there can be a bias in the sample
    • For example, if the hypothesis was to examine obedience in male and female soldiers it is possible that a random sample would not include most/some female soldiers, which would not be useful.
80
Q

Define stratified sampling

A

It is when certain groups need to be represented in a study and so sampling is done to ensure those groups are found in the sample, the proportion of the sample should match the proportions in the groups themselves

81
Q

Describe stratified sampling

A
  • Groups arise from the study and it is decided how many participants are needed within each group
  • The number of participants from each group should represent the number of that group in the target population
82
Q

What are the advantages of stratified sampling

A
  • Each group is bound to be represented so conclusions about differences between those groups can be drawn
  • Stratified sampling is an efficient way of ensuring that there is representation from each group
    • Random sampling would probably still provide some participants from each group, but the researcher could not be sure of this and may need a larger sample
    • Stratified sampling limits the numbers needed to obtain representation from each group
83
Q

What are the disadvantages of stratified sampling

A
  • It is difficult to know how many of each group to chose in order to make sure that the findings are generalizable
    • It is always difficult to know how many individuals make up an appropriate sample, with stratified sampling, where the numbers in each group may be small, it is harder
  • The groups set by the study may not be the important groups
    • Having the groups already decided means that some people will be ruled out as participants
    • This could mean that the sample is not representative of the population
84
Q

Define volunteer sampling

A

It is when the participants select themselves by putting themselves forward as volunteers

85
Q

Describe volunteer sampling

A
  • Participants select themselves by volunteering to take part in a study
  • Can be done through advertisements or letters
86
Q

What are the advantages of volunteer sampling

A
  • It is more ethical than other methods
    • The participants come to the researcher rather than the researcher seeking them out
  • Volunteers are interest and are less likely to give biased information or go against the researchers instructions
    • There is less likely to be social desirability or demand characteristics
    • In general it is an advantage to have volunteers in that they are willingly to be involved in the study
87
Q

What are the disadvantages of volunteer sampling

A
  • It can take a long time to get sufficient numbers of participants because the researcher has to wait for volunteers to apply
    • For example one advertisement or request may not raise enough people
  • The participants select themselves, they might be similar in some way
    • For example, Milgram’s participants all read the advertisement, so they read the same publication
    • They also had the time to take part, which could rule out all those in certain occupations
    • Therefore a volunteers sample, being self-selected, may not be representative of the target population
88
Q

Define opportunity sampling

A

Using whoever is available

89
Q

Describe opportunity sampling

A
  • Taking whoever is available
  • Researchers use whoever they can find to take part
  • The way participants are chosen isn’t structured
90
Q

What are the advantages of opportunity sampling

A
  • It tends to be more ethical because the researcher can judge if the participant is likely to be upset by the study or is too busy to take part
    • Other forms of sampling often do not give this information readily
  • The researcher has more control of who is asked
    • So finding participants should be quick and efficient because access in not a problem
91
Q

What are the disadvantages of opportunity sampling

A
  • There is more chance of bias than with other methods
    • The researchers have more control over who is chosen and may be biased towards people who are easy to access, such as the people they know
    • They may be biased towards choosing people like themselves, choosing people their age or people who look friendly
    • These issues connected with research are likely to give a biased sample
  • Those who are picked are available and willing to take part in the study, are self-selected
    • This would rule out anyone not available or unwilling, which causes bias
    • This may lead to a biased sample
92
Q

Define standard deviation

A
  • It is a score obtained by seeing how far individual scores vary from the mean
  • It shows the spread of the scores
93
Q

What are inferential statistic tests used for

A

They examine whether the variables being studied are different or related enough to draw conclusions to that effect

94
Q

What inferential statistics test is a test for correlation

A

Spearman test

95
Q

What inferential statistics test is a test for difference

A
  1. The Mann-Whitney U test
  2. Wilcoxon signed-rank
  3. Chi-squared tests
96
Q

Nominal data

A
  • They are in the form of categories
  • There are no scores
    • E.g. whether someone is male or female is the nominal data
  • They are the lowest level measurement
97
Q

Ordinal data

A
  • They are ranked data, such as ratings
  • When data is put into a hierarchy, hen they are ranked and are ordinal data
  • They are the middle level of measurement
98
Q

Interval data

A
  • They are data where real measurements are involved
    • E.g. temperature
  • The data are scores that have equal intervals between them
  • They are the highest level of measurement
99
Q

What statistical test do you choose when the study is a correlation

A

Use the Spearman’s ranked correlation coefficient test

100
Q

What statistical test do you choose when the study is an independent groups design with ordinal/interval data

A

Mann-Whitney U test

101
Q

What statistical test do you choose when the study is a repeated measures design with ordinal/interval data

A

Wilcoxon signed-rank test

102
Q

How would a researcher measure probability and decide on a hypothesis from their data?

A
  • A researcher conducts the study and collects data
  • The data is processed using an inferential test that produces an observed value
  • To determine if the results are significant the observed value is compared with a critical value in a critical values table
  • Before checking the critical values table the researcher needs to know:
    • The number of participants in the study (n) or degrees of freedom (df)
    • The direction of the hypothesis
    • The required level of significance
    • Whether the calculated value has to be more or less the critical value for significance to be shown
  • The researcher decides whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis
103
Q

Define observed value

A

The number produced after applying an inferential test formula

104
Q

Define critical value

A

The number which must be achieved in order for the result to be significant

105
Q

Define ethics

A

Ethics refers to how psychology is done in practice, both as a practitioner and researcher. Ethics refers to values and beliefs, what is right and wrong when working people in society.

106
Q

What is the BPS

A

The BPS is the association that supports psychologists and regulates the profession

107
Q

What is the purpose of the BPS

A

To make sure that people involved in psychology, including clients and research participants, are treated ethically.

108
Q

List the 4 main principles of the BPS

A
  1. Respect
  2. Responsibility
  3. Competence
  4. integrity
109
Q

Define the ethical principle of: respect

A

Respect is about a psychologist or researcher being willing to explain the ethics of any study or practice, and respecting the dignity of others, including any cultural differences, role differences and individual differences

110
Q

What factors come under the ethical principle of respect

A
  1. Privacy
  2. Confidentiality
  3. Individual differences
  4. Informed consent
  5. The right to withdraw
111
Q

How do you practice the ethical principle of respect

A
  • Respect includes avoiding any unfair practice and avoiding prejudice, and it involves respecting the opinions of others.
  • Respecting peoples wishes of privacy and confidentiality - about their identity not being revealed to others.
  • Consent must be obtained and must be informed, so that a person knows what they are consenting to.
  • Allowing the participant to be aware of their right to withdraw at any time from the research at all times
112
Q

Define privacy

A

Refers to avoiding publishing something that someone would prefer not to be known to others. Privacy refers to maintaining silence rather than enabling others to find out about such issues.

113
Q

Define confidentiality

A

Refers to not identifying the participant or client

114
Q

Define informed consent

A

Refers to getting permission from participants when using them in a study, and permission must come after all possible information has been given to the participants.

115
Q

Define the ethical principle of: competence

A

Competence is about the researcher and their level of competence with regard to what they are attempting, all research and practice must be carried out within the researchers capability.

116
Q

How do you practice the ethical principle of competence

A

Not doing research outside of your own ability

117
Q

Define the ethical principle of: responsibility

A

It holds the researcher or psychologist responsible for their work, they must be sure that they do no harm and they must asses harm in a debrief after the study. If there is harm they must take steps to put things right.

118
Q

Define the ethical principle of: integrity

A

Integrity is an ethical principle about a psychologist or researcher as an individual, they must maintain professional boundaries and look for miscondut in others. If they see misconduct, they must act on it. They must be honest and accurate.

119
Q

Define deception

A

Refers to being honest and accurate in all dealings with others

120
Q

What are the 5 guidelines that need to be considered in research in psychology

A
  1. Informed consent
  2. Deceit
  3. Right to withdraw
  4. Debriefing
  5. Competence
121
Q

How do you get informed consent

A
  • Participants must be told what the study is about in order for there to be informed consent
  • Observations may be carried out without consent as long as they are carried out in a public setting where people know they are going to be seen
  • If participants are children, their parents or guardians must give informed consent as well as the child.
  • For questionnaires interviews and some experiments, informed consent is not difficult to gather because the questions in the survey will suggest what the survey is about, therefore the participant is likely to guess the purpose and so have informed consent for the experiment.
  • If informed consent is not ideal because it could affect the data gathered, a thorough debriefing afterwards can make the study ethical as well as an offer to withdraw the data from the study if the participant is unhappy with having taken part.
  • No study should be carried out if a participant leaves the study in a different state from that when the study began
122
Q

Define prior consent

A

Before a study takes part, participants have agreed to whatever is going to take place, even though they are not able to give informed consent for the study itself

123
Q

Define presumptive consent

A

Other people are asked whether they would take part in the study, if they were the participants. They are not participants but it would show whether people would be okay with doing what was going to be asked.

124
Q

How do you make a study ethical without informed consent

A
  1. Ask for volunteers so participants know they are taking part in a study
  2. Get presumptive consent by asking other people if they would be happy to take part in such study
  3. Ask other psychologists whether they think that the consequences for the participants would be too severe
  4. Get prior consent, ask people beforehand to volunteer and explain some level of deception is necessary
125
Q

How do you avoid deception

A
  • Participants can be deceived when:
    • They are not told the truth about what they have to do, so all participants must be told the truth about their role in the experiment
    • By not being told what the expected results are and how they will be used, so all participants must be aware of what is going to happen with their results and how they will be used
    • By not being told the role of other participants in the study, so all participants must be told the role of others in the study
126
Q

How is deception used in studies

A
  1. In surveys there may be deception in order to hide the ‘real’ question within the set, this is done to avoid demand characteristics
  2. In studies deception may be used to hide the real aim of the study to gather valid data
127
Q

How do you make a study ethical after deception

A
  1. A thorough debriefing afterwards must occur with all participants
  2. If participants are debriefed and unhappy with taking part of the experiment, they data should be withdrawn and a follow-up contact made to ensure that there are no long-term effects
  3. Throughout the study participants should be given the right to withdraw, they should be asked periodically if they are happy to continue
128
Q

Asses the guideline of giving the right to withdraw

A

In some studies this would affect the results, e.g. in obedience studies obedience levels won’t be measured if participants can say that they want to leave

129
Q

How do you debrief a participant

A

The debrief should:

  • Explain the study
  • Explain what results were expected
  • Explain the participants’ results
  • Ask the participants about possible withdrawal of results
  • Check that the participant has no further question and is not distressed by the study
130
Q

How can you asses competence in running a study

A

Ask another professional if:

  1. Understanding the implications of the study
  2. Knowing the ethical guidelines
  3. Getting advice in any area about which the researcher doesn’t feel confident in
  4. Being suitably qualified
  5. Adhering to safe practice
  6. Adhering to the Data Protection Act
  7. Knowing where and how to store data

psychology (78 decks)

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