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learning theories research method Flashcards

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1
Q

Define structured observations

A

When observations are structured so that the same situation is repeated with different participants and researchers observe what happens, the manipulation of the setting and situation makes the observation structured

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2
Q

When are structured observations used

A
  • When the behaviour of interest doesn’t occur naturally so it is hard to observe in a natural setting
  • So that there is a procedure that can be used in other places and countries and comparisons can be made between findings
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3
Q

What are the advantages of structured observations

A
  1. A controlled environment allows focusing on particular aspects of behaviour, e.g. children playing with feminine toys to observe how boys and girls react. This means that specific conclusions can be drawn about gender responses.
  2. It may be possible to draw some tentative causal conclusions if variables are deliberately changed by the researcher and different effects are observed then it suggests that one caused the other.
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4
Q

What are the disadvantages of structured observations

A
  1. Environment may feel unnatural and then participants may not behave as they would in everyday life, this could reduce the validity of observations
  2. Observer may see less
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5
Q

Define naturalistic observations

A
  • They capture real-life data from a real situation and real behaviour
  • There is no element of setting up what will happen and what will be observed
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6
Q

What are the advantages of naturalistic observations

A
  1. A realistic picture of natural, spontaneous behaviour. The observation takes place in a person’s natural environment and so they are likely to behave as they normally do. This means the results are likely to be high in ecological validity
  2. A useful method to use when investigating a new area of research, gives the researcher ideas of what further investigation may be planned, for example using certain behavioural categories or experimental methods
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7
Q

What are the disadvantages of naturalistic observations

A
  1. The observation is likely to be covert which raises ethical issues
  2. Difficult to draw conclusions if the focus is too wide, if behavioural categories and event/time sampling have been used that may restrict the amount of data collected which makes it easier to see of patterns of behaviour
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8
Q

Describe participant observations

A

The observer is a participant in the behaviour being observed (being in a bus stop queue and observing behaviour in the queue)

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9
Q

What are the advantages of participant observations

A
  1. Likely to provide special insights into behaviour, from the inside. The participant has greater familiarity with what is likely to happen don’t therefore may see greater detail that would be missed by someone new to the situation.
  2. Being on the inside means the observer may see more
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10
Q

What are the disadvantages of participant observations

A
  1. Objectivity is reduced due to observer bias because the observer is familiar with what is going on and they are looking at the situation more subjectively
  2. More difficult to record and monitor behaviour if the observer is part of the group being observed, therefore the observation is likely to be overt and participants are aware they are being studied which may alter their behaviour
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11
Q

Describe non-participant observations

A

observer is not a participant in the behaviour being observed

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12
Q

What are the advantages of non-participant observations

A
  1. Increased objectivity because of a psychological and physical distance
  2. Can observe in a way that is not blatant therefore participants will not be self-conscious about being observed. This may increase validity because participants behave more naturally.
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13
Q

What are the disadvantages of non-participant observations

A

The observer may misinterpret the communications within the group because they are an outsider, this could reduce the validity of the observations
Observer may see less

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14
Q

Describe an overt observation

A

Participant is aware of being observed

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15
Q

What are the advantages of an overt observation

A
  1. Avoids lack of informed consent because participants can decide if they want to participate
  2. It is easier to see everything that is going on because the observer doesn’t have to hide
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16
Q

What are the disadvantages of an overt observation

A

If participants know they are being observed they are likely to alter their behaviour due to demand characteristics

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17
Q

Describe a covert observation

A

Observations made without a participants knowledge

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18
Q

What are the advantages of a covert observation

A

Participants behave more naturally because they aren’t aware of being studied

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19
Q

What are the disadvantages of an covert observation

A
  1. Raises ethical issues about observing people without their knowledge, participants may be able to give informed consent if asked afterwards but in practice its difficult
  2. Invasion of privacy, even for observations in a public place, people might regard it as unethical to record what they are doing
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20
Q

What are the different ways of capturing data in observations

A
  1. Tallying
  2. Time sampling
  3. Event sampling
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21
Q

Describe behavioural categories for collecting quantitative data

A

Objective methods to separate continuous stream of action into components so behaviours can be counted

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22
Q

What are the advantages of behavioural categories for collecting quantitative data

A
  1. Enables systematic observations to be made so important information is not overlooked, enhances the validity
  2. Categories can be tallied and conclusions drawn
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23
Q

What are the disadvantages of behavioural categories for collecting quantitative data

A
  1. Categories may not cover all possibilities, some behaviours not recorded so low validity
  2. Poor design of categories may reduce reliability
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24
Q

Define event sampling

A

Draw up a list of behavioural categories then count (tally) each time of the behaviours occurs in a specific time period

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25
Q

What are the advantages of event sampling

A

Event sampling is useful when behaviour to-be-recorded only happens occasionally, missing events would reduce validity

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26
Q

What are the disadvantages of event sampling

A

Observations may not be representative if list of events is not comprehensive, reduces validity

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27
Q

Define time sampling

A
  • Count behaviours at regular time intervals
  • Or take a sample at different times of day or month
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28
Q

What are the advantages of time sampling

A

Time sampling allows for tracking of time-related changes to behaviour

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29
Q

What are the disadvantages of time sampling

A

Time sampling may decrease validity because some behaviours are missed, for example when important behaviour occurs outside the observation time interval

30
Q

How to increase reliability in an observation

A
  • Make sure that observers are trained in the use of selected behavioural categories
  • Review the categories and see if any are unclear or need subdividing to make for ore accurate recording
  • Have more than 1 observer
31
Q

How to increase validity in an observation

A

Using more than one observer can reduce observer bias by averaging data across observers

32
Q

what is content analysis

A

a method used to analyse qualitative data through indirect observation, it allows a researcher to collect qualitative data and transform it into quantitive data

33
Q

list examples of data formats where content analysis can be used

A
  1. interview transcripts (questionnaires)
  2. film
  3. audio recordings
34
Q

explain the process of content analysis

A
  • data is collected
  • researcher reads through or examines the data, making themselves familiar with it
  • the researcher identifies coding units (behavioural categories)
  • the data is analysed by applying the coding units (behavioural categories)
  • a tally is made of the number of times that a coding unit appears
35
Q

what are the advantages of content analysis

A
  • reliable way to analyse qualitative data as the coding units are not open to interpretation and so are applied in the same way over time with different researchers
  • it is an easy technique to use and is not too time consuming
  • it allows a statistical analysis to be conducted if required as there is usually quantitive data as a result of the procedure
36
Q

what are the disadvantages of content analysis

A
  • causality cannot be established, content analyses describe the data. if you want to discover the cause of the behaviour you are observing, you need to use an experiment.
    • so no deeper meaning or explanation for the data patterns arising can be extracted
37
Q

Define twin studies

A

A study where twins are compared on a specific trait to see how similar they are

38
Q

Define monozygotic (MZ) twins

A

They are identical twins whose genes are the same and develop from 1 fertilised egg

39
Q

Define dizygotic (DZ) twins

A

Non-identical twins because they develop from 2 fertilised eggs, they share on average about 50% of their genes and they are as similar as any pair of siblings

40
Q

Define a concordance rate

A

An agreement rate is when both twins have the same characteristic

41
Q

What would be the expected results from a twin study if a behaviour is entirely genetic?

A

If a behaviour is entirely genetic then MZ twins are to show 100% concordance

42
Q

What would are the expected results from a twin study of behaviour is more environmental than genetic

A

If a particular behaviour is more genetic than environmental then we would expect MZ twins to show a higher concordance rate than DZ twins

43
Q

How can a correlation coefficient be used in a twin study

A

It is used to measure correlation, if we are looking at behaviour measured numerically a correlation coefficient can be calculated to measure similarity

44
Q

How is concordance used in a twin study

A

If a behaviour that is all-or-nothing is being studied, concordance is used to find the percentage of those studied who are similar

45
Q

What are the advantages of twin studies?

A
  • Enables researchers to investigate the influence of genes because it is assumed that both MZ and DZ co-twins share the same environments
    • The only difference between the two groups of participants is genetic
    • Therefore if a trait is genetic then MZ twins would show higher concordance than DZ twins
  • Although twins are unusual, information for twin studies is often taken from twin registries
    • These hold data on thousands of twins and also contain information about many variables
    • This means that the sample is large and the data is likely to be representative
46
Q

What are the disadvantages of twin studies

A
  • Twin studies may overestimate genetic influence
    • MZ twins have more similar environments than same-sex DZ twins
    • They are treated more similarly, spend more time with each other and tend to share friends
    • The environmental experience of one MZ twin is to a large extent that same as the environmental experience of the other much more so than for DZ twins
    • Therefore some of the estimated similarly it actually due to a shared environment
  • Twin studies provide a broad indication that behaviour or characteristic has genetic origin but cannot identify the specific genes involved
    • A twin study is a useful starting point for research, but more recent technologies are required to help us uncover specific genetic influences
47
Q

Describe one example of a twin study

A
    • Brengden et al aggression study
    • Aggression was investigated in MZ and DZ twins to assess the contributions of genetic and environmental factors
    • They used a twin study to compare concordance rates for 234 pairs of MZ and DZ twins, each twin was rated for their level of social aggression by peers and teachers
    • Physical aggression was explained by genetic factors but social aggression was much more influenced by environmental factors
    • Concluded that heritable characteristics predispose some children to aggression but the form aggression takes depends more on the environment
48
Q

When are genetic factors implied in adoption studies

A

Genetic factors are implicated if children are more similar to their biological parents with whom they share genes but not the environment, than to their adoptive parents with whom they share an environment but not genes

49
Q

Define heritability

A

Heritability is the proportion of differences between individuals in a population, the particular trait is a result of genetic variation

50
Q

When are environmental factors implied in adoption studies

A

Environmental factors are implicated if children are more similar to their adoptive parents with whom they share an environment with but not genes, than their biological parents whom they share genes with but not an environment

51
Q

What are the advantages of adoption studies

A
  • Adoption studies have the advantage of removing the extraneous variable of the environment
    • If MZ twins are similar it is not clear whether the similarity is due to the same environment or the same genes
    • In adoption studies, the environment is not shared or biology is not shared
  • Adoption studies have been useful in showing that twin studies overestimate genetic factors
    • Eley et al found out that environmental factors are more important using adoption studies, whereas twin studies have detected a greater role for genetics
    • This may be an area in which assumption of equal environments is clearly untrue
52
Q

What are the disadvantages of adoption studies

A
  • Children may be adopted by families similar to their biological families due to selective placement and therefore environmental influences may be similar
    • For example, a child whose biological parents are well-educated is placed with a similar family
    • This means that apparent similarities with biological relatives may be due to environmental similarities rather than genes
  • People who adopt other people’s biological offspring are unusual, so are unlikely to be representative of the population
    • They tend to be better educated, have lower rates of mental illness and come from higher socioeconomic groups
    • This means that any conclusions from adoption studies about the effects of genes on such traits as intelligence may not be generalisable to the population as a whole.
53
Q

Describe one example of an adoption study

A
  • Tienari conducted the Finnish Adoptive family study looking at schizophrenia
  • They found that the lifetime schizophrenia risk for adopted children of biological mothers who were diagnosed with schizophrenia was 9.4%
  • The corresponding figure for adopted-away children of unaffected biological parents was 1.2%
  • This difference strongly suggests that genetic influences have an important role in the development of schizophrenia
54
Q

Define ethology

A

A research method where animals are observed in their natural environment

55
Q

Define sentient

A

Humans are the most sentient, they are the only creatures with a sophisticated way of thinking for example morals and religions

56
Q

What are animal experiments

A

The manipulation of an independent variable, either in an animals environment or in the animal itself

57
Q

What must researchers NOT do when working with animals

A

Researchers must not break law regarding endangered and protected species

58
Q

What are the 3 rules of the BPS guidelines for working with animals

A
  1. Replacemet
  2. Reduction
  3. Refinement
59
Q

Describe replacement, the rule from the BPS guidelines for working with animals

A
  • Where possible, live animals should be replaced with researcher alternatives such as videos
  • Animals should only be used as a last resort
60
Q

Describe reduction, the rule from the BPS guidelines for working with animals

A

The number of animals used should be minimised as much as possible, this involves carefully designed experiments and good use of statistics to get the maximum amount of data from the smallest number of animals

61
Q

Describe refinement, the rule from the BPS guidelines for working with animals

A

The breeding, accommodation and care of protected animals and the methods used in regular procedures applied to such animals must be refined so as to eliminate or reduce to the minimum possible pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm to the animal

62
Q

Describe the reasons why we should use animal studies in psychology

A
  • There is research based on an evolutionary theory proposed by Charles Darwin where humans are descended from animal ancestors or are animals themselves
  • Humans retain many biological and psychological characteristics from their animal ancestors that they share in common with other animals
63
Q

What is the evidence used to support the use of animals in psychology

A
  • Rhesus monkeys share 93% of their genes with chimpanzees and humans
  • Mice share 90% of their genes with humans
64
Q

Describe the reasons why we shouldn’t use animal studies in psychology

A
  • They are impractical and unethical
  • They have problems with generalizability, even if we accept the evolutionary theory, humans have evolved to be different from most other animals
  • Drawing conclusions about human behaviour from observing animals might be invalid, it is reductionist and misleading
  • Even if animals are genetically similar to humans, they only share a genotype with us not a phenotype which is a wider description of biology and the environment
65
Q

What is the evidence used against the use of animals in psychology

A
  • The horrors of harry Harlow’s study
  • Harlow raised the monkey without a mother, providing them instead with a wire mother and a cloth mother
  • The wire mother was a metal figure that would dispense food to feed the monkey, the cloth mother didn’t dispense milk but was soft to touch
  • The monkey had as much need for comfort from both mothers
  • Harlow scared the monkeys with a scary machine, the monkey fled to the cloth mother
  • He placed monkeys in the pit of despair, an isolation chamber where they were fed but cut off from all contact for a year
  • The monkeys developed intense depression, one monkey was released and died 5 days later after refusing to eat
66
Q

List the practical considerations of animal studies

A
  1. Caging
  2. Deprivation
  3. Pain
67
Q

Describe caging as a practical consideration of animal studies

A

Distress should be minimised during caging, social species need companionship and animals unused to other animals may be distressed if caged with them

68
Q

Describe deprivation as a practical consideration of animal studies

A

Some food deprivation is allowable but distress should be minimised

69
Q

Describe pain as a practical consideration of animal studies

A
  • Anaesthetics should be used to minimise pain, animals should be given medical treatment after research
  • The humane killing must be considered if suffering can’t be reduced and when the study is complete the animal should be disposed of ethically
70
Q

What are the factors that Bateson’s Decision cube considers

A
  1. The degree of animal suffering
  2. The benefits of the findings
  3. The quality of the research
71
Q

How do you know your research is ethical and has a high benefit from the Bateson decision cube

A
  1. The degree of animal suffering is low
  2. The benefits of the findings are clear and high
  3. The quality of research is highly valid and reliable

psychology (78 decks)

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