Social Influence Paper 1 Flashcards
What is conformity?
The influence that social pressure has on our thoughts, behaviours and decisions
What is compliance?
Individual publicly agrees but disagrees privately. A way to gain approval, associated with NSI and is a temporary form
What is identification?
Individual adopts behaviour/beliefs as they value membership. They conform privately and publicly due to wanting association. It is temporary and strong but fades
What is internalisation?
Individual accepts beliefs and makes it their own- private and public agreement. The strongest and most permanent form of conformity
What was the aim of Asch’s study?
To investigate whether individuals would conform to the majority, even if the correct answer is obvious
What was the methodology of Asch’s study?
123 male American students were told they were taking part in a visual perception task. They were provided with 1 line and 3 comparison line and were asked to state which line matched the standard. Each participant was placed in groups 6-8 and the other people in the group were confederates who purposefully said the wrong answer. The participant always answered second to last. The confederates gave the same incorrect answer on 12/18 trials.
What were the findings of Asch’s study?
36.8% was the conformity rate
75% of participants conformed once/ 25% conformed never
What did the participants state their reasoning for conforming was?
Avoiding ridicule, doubting judgment, believing the majority was correct
What was the conclusion of Asch’s study?
Group influence affected inidvidual behaviour
What were Asch’s variations?
1) Group size- One confederate had 3% conformity, 3 confederates had 32% conformity and 15 confederates had decreased conformity due to suspicion
2) Unanimity- Conformity decreased when asked to write answers instead of verbally provide them. Dissenter was used who disagreed with the A)majority or B)everyone. Both decreased conformity
3) Task difficulty- Asch made comparison lines more similar. Conformity increased as difficulty did- ISI example
What are the strengths of Asch’s research into social influence?
Supporting evidence- Lucas et al (2006) found participants conformed more on harder maths tasks. Asch is correct in his claim which increases concurrent validity. However, participants with higher confidence in maths and their ability conformed less highlighting individual differences play a role in conformity.
What are the limitations of Asch’s research into social influence?
Ethical issues- Deception was used which may have caused psychological harm. However, a cost benefit analysis would evaluate this risk
Artificial- demand characteristics and lack of ecological validity pointed out by Fiske (2014) who used varied groups
Population Validity- gender bias and cultural bias due to androcentric sample lacks generalisation (Bond and Smith). USA is an individualist culture and conformity rates in collectivist cultures is higher. However, Perrin and Spencer (1980) replicated Asch’s study with British Engineeering studies finding that lower conformity ratees which shows cultural and temporal factors do have a role but conformity is still of occurance in many, varied populations
Who created the ideas of NSI and ISI?
Deutsch and Gerard (1955)
What is NSI?
Normative Social Influence-
The desire to be liked, associated with compliance, an emotional process, seen in social situations
What is ISI?
Informational Social Influence-
The desire to be right, associated with internalisation, a cognitive process, seen in ambigious situations
What research supports NSI?
Asch- participants didn’t want to seem like the odd one out. When writing, conformity dropped by 12.5%, as the need for social approval wasn’t apparent
McGhee and Teevan (1967)- People with a high need for affiliation and relatability were more likely to conform
What research supports ISI?
Jenness (1932)- Jelly bean task- private eestimates shifted towards the group response
Lucas et al- participants solving easy and hard maths questions. Participants conformed more to incorrect answers when the problems got harder, supporting ISI. However, the study found participants with high confidence in maths conformed less on difficult tasks, highlighting individual factors
What are social roles?
Behaviours expected of individuals in different social groups, linked commonly to power or authority and appropiate behaviour
What are dispositional factors?
Internal factors that help to explain the behaviour of certain people, like traits and personality
What are situational factors?
External influences or circumstances, like environment, people, or events, that can impact a person’s behavior, decision-making, or actions
What was the procedure of Zimbardo’s study?
-24 Male students, described as mentally stable and sound randomly allocated as a prisoner or guard
-Mock prison set up
-Prisoners provided with numbers, deindividuated, names taken away. Arrested at home, strip-searched, fingerprints taken
-Guards provided with batons, glasses and uniforms
-Volunteer sampling
-Participant observation as Zimbardo was parole supervisor and researcher
-Overt observation
-Confined to their cells for 23 hours and had to follow 16 strict rules
What was the aim of Zimbardos study?
To investigate the behaviour of individuals when assigned to social roles
What were the findings of Zimbardos study?
-Planned to last for 2 weeks, lasted for 6 days
-Prisoners rebelled, guards responded with fire extinguishers and hitting
-Officers became aggressive, cruel and abusive
-Prisoner went on hunger strike and was force fed
-Three prisoners left due to emotional distress
-Guards acted sadistic, did not feel guilty and lacked empathy
-Prisoners were depressed, subdued and anxious
What were the strengths of Zimbardo’s study?
-Participants weren’t acting- McDermott (2019) found 90% of prisoners conversations were about the prison which shows a deep engagement with the study and scenario. Prisoner 416 believd real prison authorites ran the experiment. This increases internal validity as behaviour is naturalistic. However, demand characteristics may play a role in behaviour still
What was the aim of Milgrams study?
The experiment studied obedience to authority, exploring whether individuals would obey instructions to harm another person because an authority figure told them to
What was the procedure of Milgrams study?
Participants would be in a room with a confederate who acted as the experimenter. Another confederate came in the room and they randomly picked a role which was either learner or teacher. This was rigged and the participant always got the teacher. They were given a trial shock of 45V for authenticity. They gave word pairs to the learner and was requested to shock them if they got it wrong. 3/4 times the learner got the answer wrong. Mr Wallace was the confederate. The experimenter gave 4 verbal prods.
The sample was 40 male participants aged 20-50 in New Haven
It took place in a controlled environment in Yale University
What were the findings?
65% went to the highest voltage of 450V
100% went to 300V
Participants showed signs of distress like sweating, panic and trembling- 3 had seizures
What is obedience?
Direct type of social influence involving following orders by an invididual perceived to be an authority figure
What does Beauvoirs 2012 research show
Strength- He replicated Milgrams study in 2012 on a French TV show where the participants were instructed by the presenter to administer fake shocks to another participant
Shows high reliability
Shows that different settings are still applicable with obedience
What does Orne and Holland’s study show?
Limitation- participants may have believed the experiment was set up, reducing the internal validity. This means they behaved due to demand characteristics rather than obedience
What does Perrys 2013 research show?
Limitation- he analysed findings from the tapes of Milgrams study and found that many expressed doubts over the authenticity of the shocks which shows participants only acted the way they did due to believing it was fake rather than obedience. This means it lacks internal validity
What does Sheridan and Kings research show?
Strength- the participants were genuinely obedient . Told to give shocks to a puppy- 54% of male participants and 100% of female participants still administered fatal shock. This increases validity and generalisability (population validity)
What does Haslams study show?
Limitation- Social Identitt Theory as the fourth prod led to disobeying when they said ‘You have no other choice , you must go on’ rather than scientific aims which shows they were willing to continue due to genuine purpose
What does Baumrinds study show?
Limitation- Ethical concerns like distress and deception
What are situational variables?
Features of immediate physical and social environment which may influence a persons behaviour
What were the situational variables in Milgrams study?
Proximity, location and uniform
How was proximity tested in Milgrams study as a situational variable and what did it conclude?
-Victim in same room- 40%
-Teacher forcing hand on to shock plate- 30%
-Experimenter on phone - 20%
Participants psychologically distance themselves from consequences and actions so further proximity leads to less awareness of harm
How was uniform tested in Milgrams study as a situational variable and what did it it conclude?
Experimenter was dressed as a normal member of the public and casual clothing- 20%
Uniforms encourage obedience and they are recognised as signs of authority and legitimacy
How was location tested as a situational variable and what can it conclude?
Run down office block- 47.5%
Prestigious environments give legitimacy and authority. Scientific procedure look increased obedience
What does Bickmans 1974 show?
In a New York field study, participants were asked to carry out requests like pick up litter and lend money , odd and specific requests. They were asked by different uniforms like milk maids; suit and tie and security guard. People were twice as likely to obey the security guard than the rest which shows the real life applicability
What did Smith and Bonds 1998 study show?
Most replications have been done in Western societies which are not culturally different from America which indicates a lack of generalisability and ecological validity
What is Mandela 1998 argument against Milgrams study?
It offers an excuse for evil behaviour as he argues it is offensive to the survivors of the holocaust that the Nazis weee obeying orders and we’re victims themselves
What is a situational explanation?
Attributes behaviour to external environmental factors rather than internal, personal characteristics. This includes social norms, authority figures and group/peer pressure
What is the agentic state?
A mental state where we feel no responsibility for our actions/behaviour as we believe we are acting as an ‘agent’ and for an authority figure. There is high realisation when an individual realises wrongdoing
What is the autonomous state?
A mental state where a person is independent over their actions and they are free, acting as according to their own principles and wishes
What are binding factors?
Aspects of the situation which allow a person to minimise the damaging effects of their behaviour which reduces moral strain and keeps the agentic state active
What is legitimacy of authority?
We are more likely to obey people who we perceive authority over. The authority is justified as the experimenter has the right to exert control and power over the individual
What is destructive authority?
Powerful leaders using their authority in a harmful way like ordering people to behave dangerously- Eg Hitler
What is a dispositional explanation?
Behaviour is highlighted as the individuals personality as a key factor
What is an authoritarian personality?
A dispositional explanation where traits like strict discipline, high expectations in childhood, loyalty to family, severe criticisms and conditional love are attached
What is the agentic shift?
From autonomous- agentic where someone else is perceived as an authority figure and at a greater position in the social hierarchy
How does Milgram’s 1963 original study link to the agentic state?
Most of Milgram’s participants resisted at some point, asking who was responsible. They continued after the experimenter/confederate accepted blame for any harm caused. This shows binding factors allowed them to be obedient
How does Rank and Jacobsons 1977 disapprove of the agentic state?
They replicated Hofflings’s nurse study. 16/18 nurses disobeyed orders from a doctor on the phone to administer excessive drug dose. The nurses rejected an authority figure
What does Mandel’s 1998 study show about the autonomous state?
One incident in WW2 where German Police Battalions shot many civilians in Poland despite no orders to
What is Kilham and Mann’s 1974 study on obedience and Mantell’s 1971 study show about cultures?
Replicated Milgram’s procedure in Australia- 16% of participants went to 450V. Replicated Milgram’s procedure in Germany and 85% of participants went to 450V. Across cultures, the agentic state is still visible but changes
How does Kelman and Hamilton’s 1989 study support the idea of a power hierarchy?
The My Lai massacre- unarmed civilians killed by American soldiers in Vietnam War
What is the authoritarian personality and who stemmed it?
Adorno et al (1950)-
-Believes in absolute obedience, submission to authority and a rigid adherence to traditional values
-Shows contempt for those of lower social status and higher conventional attitudes towards sex, gender and race
-Society needs to have strong leaders to enforce traditional values
-Sees issues as right or wrong
What is the F-Scale study by Adorno et al (1950)?
Sample- 2000 middle class, White Americans
-Measured unconscious attitudes towards different racial groups
-Developed F-Scale questionnaire to assess authoritarian traits
What were the findings of the F-Scale study by Adorno et al (1950)?
-There is a strong correlation between prejudice and authoritarianism
-High F-scale scores linked to admiring strong leaders, showing extreme submission to authority while expressing prejudice to that of lower status individuals
-Authoritarian individuals displayed fixed stereotypes and rigid, black and white views
What is Elms and Milgrams 1966 findings on the authoritarian personality?
Reported a correlational link that highly obedient participants in Milgram’s study were significantly more authoritarian on the F-Scale than disobedient participants, supporting the link between authoritarian personality type and obedience
What is Christie and Jahoda’s 1954 argument against the F-Scale?
The F-Scale is politically biased as it ignores left-wing authoritarianism like Chinese Maoism and focuses on right wing like Nazis. Many extreme ideologies have common themes so therefore the F-scale is not a comprehensive dispositional explanation for the entirety of the political spectrum
What is Greenstein’s 1969 argument against the F-Scale?
The F-Scale has methodological errors like how you can select agree and get a high score, resulting in response bias
What is Altemeyer’s 1998 study supporting the authoritarian personality type?
Used a controlled experiment and reported that participants with an authoritarian personality type who were ordered to give shocks to themselves, gave higher shocks than those without the personality type, suggesting the higher levels of obedience
What is the Middenthorp and Meleon’s 1990 study on the authoritarian personality type?
Found that less educated people are more likely than well educated people to display authoritarian personality characteristics. This suggests that when explaining obedience, the level of education may be a factor as well
What is social support?
The ability to withstand the social pressure to conform to the majority or to obey authority
How does social support lead to resistance of conformity? (Asch)
Having someone else not following the majority or acting as a dissent enables the participant to be free to follow their own conscience. The confederate acts as a model of an independent behaviour in Asch’s study as the dissent highlighted the majority is not unanimous any more
How does Milgram’s study show resistance to obedience?
In Milgram’s variations, the rate of obedience dropped from 65% to 10% going to 450V when a dissent was present. The participant may not have followed the dissents behaviour but they act as a model for dissent. The legitimate authority figure is challenged which makes it easier to disobey them
What does Allen and Levine’s 1971 study show about a dissenter?
In an Asch type task, a dissenter who had good eyesight meant 64% of participants refused to conform whereas if the dissenter wore glasses the resistance was 36%, highlighting the impact of individual factors within disobedience
What does Albrecht’s et al 2006 study show about a dissenter?
Teen Fresh Start 8 week programme to help pregnant teenagers to resist the peer pressure to smoke. They were paired with an older buddy- they were more likely to resist peer pressure to smoke than the control group without the buddy
What does Gamson et al’s 1982 study show about resistance in a group?
Participants were told to produce evidence to help an oil company run a smear campaign - there were higher levels of resistance than Milgrams study which shows situtational factors affecting resistance. 29/33 participants rebelled against orders
What is the internal locus of control?
The belief that when things happen, they are down to being controlled by an individual
What is the external locus of control?
The belief that when things happen, they are outside an individuals control
Which LOC is more likely to resist social influence?
Internal LOC as their actions are viewed as their own responsibility. They are self confident, achievement orientated, with higher intelligence and a lower need for social approval
Who created the idea of locus of control and when?
Rotter in 1966
How does Holland’s 1967 study support the idea of locus of control?
Repeated Milgram’s baseline study and measured external/internal LOC. 37% of internals didn’t continue to 450V whereas 27% of externals didn’t continue to 450V, which agrees with internal locus of control is more likely to defy social pressures and disobey
How does Twenge et al (2004) study disapprove of the locus of control?
Analysed data from American LOC studies conducted over a 40 year period which showed people became more resistant to obedience but more external- this questions the temporal validity of Rotter’s work
What does Rotter’s later 1982 study suggest about LOC?
LOC is not the most important factor in determining someones resistance to social influence but it still has some control. LOC depends on the role of the situation and it only impacts new situations. If a person has already obeyed, they will obey again regardless of the internal and external LOC
What is minority influence?
A small group/individuals ability to persuade the majority to adopt their views or behaviour. It is likely to lead to internalisation from informational social influence and highlight social change
What is consistency?
Minority influence is more effective if the minority keeps the same beliefs over time, drawing attention to their view
What is synchronic consistency?
All members say and believe the same thing
What is diachronic consistency?
All members are consistent for a long period of time
What is commitment?
The minority group must engage in extreme activities to draw attention, posing some threat or risk to self
What is the augmentation theory?
People pay more attention and change views when commitment to a cause is shown
What is flexibility?
Nemeth (1986) argued consistency on an extreme level may be off-putting so for success, a minority should be willing to adapt their viewpoint to fit others, accepting reasonable arguments and counter points
What is the snowball effect?
If a source is committed, flexible and consistent, it is more likely to be acknowledged and processed. The deeper processing leads to conversion. As more people switch, the rate of conversion gets faster. This leads to a view of the minority becoming a view of the majority
What was the method of Moscovici’s 1969 study?
Six female undergraduates assessed 36 blue coloured slides that varied in intensity, stating if they were blue or green
What were the groups and findings of Moscovici’s 1969 study?
1st group- 2 confederates stated the slides were green 2/3 of times which led to a 8.42% increase in the minority being wrong. 32% of participants gave the same answer as the minority at least once
2nd group- Inconsistent majority meant agreement fell to 1.25%
3rd group- No confederates led to 0.25% of answers wrong
What was the conclusion of Moscovici’s 1969 study?
A consistent minority has a greater effect on other people than an inconsistent minority
What real life examples are there are of minority influence?
Suffragettes, Civil Rights Movement
What does Martin et al’s (2003) research show about minority influence?
Strength- Research supports deeper processing and change of attitude
Method- Measured participants agreement with a viewpoint before and after hearing it supported by a majority and minority
Results-Less likely to change viewpoint after listening to minority
Minority influence encourages deeper processing
However- it was in a controlled environment so lacks ecological validity and a real life environment
What are limitations of minority influence/research into?
-Tasks like in Moscovivi’s study are arttifical, not linked to real life events. This lacks external validity as minority influence can be seen in life/death situations like jury decision making
-Gender bias of Moscovici’s study- not applicable
What does Wood et al’s (1994) study show about consistency in minority influence?
Strength- Consistency is a key factor
Method- Conducted a meta analysis of 100 studies of Moscovici’s replications
Results- Minorities who consistently maintained who consistently maintained their viewpoint had the most influence. This signals strength and commitment in belief as qualities that make someone more likely to listen to a perspective. It creates doubt in the majority’s position and influences deeper cognitive processing
Link- Supports Moscovici’s conversion theory which is evident in real life scenarios like civil rights movement and the suffragettes
However- meta analysis may be affected by different methodologies and samples. Study design may affect the generalisability of results
