Issues and Debates Paper 3 Flashcards
What are ethical issues?
Bringing system of morality and principles into conflict
What is social sensitivity- who stemmed the phrase?
Sieber and Stanley (1988) defined it as potential consequences for the group/people represened by research
What were some theories or approaches that were unethical?
Milgram- lack of right to withdraw comfortably
Zimbardo- distress, harm, stopped early
What were some theories or approaches that were also unethical in relation to attachment?
Bowlby’s monotropy- argues womens role should be the primary caregiver an discourages fathers to be caregivers
What were some theories or approaches that were socially sensitive?
Raine et al (1997) scanned violent criminals to look at impulse control, implying children should have brain scans to see offending behaviour
How should researchers consider ethical implications?
- Research Question- mis-interpretation
- Methodology- treatment, protection, rights
3.Institutional contexts- data usage, funding? - Interpretation/Application- reactions of media
Who could be affected by ethics and ethical implications?
-Participants
-Researchers
-Funders
-Company
-Public
What is the main example of a socially sensitive piece of research?
History of intelligence testing by Colonel Yerkes who assigned roles via native intellectual ability. Black people were perceived to have a lower intelligence than the rest of the population. (Mental age of 10.41 in comparison to 13). This led to discriminatory policies such as the Immigration Restriction Act of 1924 but the IQ tests were unreliable and inaccurate.
What are some examples of ethical implications in areas of psychology?
SLT- self-fulfilling prophecies of aggression
Biological- if something has a biological cause, it cannot be changed
Pyschodynamic- Odiepus and Elektra complex is seen to be sensitive
What ways could ethical issues be dealt with?
-Submit proposal to BPS and abide by recommendations
-Cost benefit analysis
-Avoid prejudice through misleading title an presentation of findings
-Reflexivity- examine own biases which affect personal influence, promoting accountability and transparency
What is gender bias?
The differential treatment and/or representations of males and females based on sterotypes
What is alpha bias?
Research that exaggerates the difference between males and females
What is beta bias?
Research that ignores difference between males and females
What is androcentrism?
Theories centred around males
What is universality?
A theory that could be applied to all people no matter the gender or culture
What are some examples of alpha bias in psychology?
-Psychodynamic- implies connection between boys and fathers is stronger than girls and mothers. He argued superiority and a stronger superego for boys without evidence
-Evolutionary explanations for attachment like men being more dominant and women being more nurturing or empathetic to their children
What are some examples of beta bias in psychology?
-Social Influence- Asch only used male participants and generalised the findings to all
-Mori and Arai (2010) showed gender differences in conformity levels
How can research not have gender bias?
-Equal amount of participants for each gender, use all genders
-Use a stratified sampling for a more representative sample
-Random Allocation for sampling, not gender specific
-Not WEIRD (Western, educated, intelligent, rich and democratic)
-Make sure that if it is gender specific, use non generalised terms
What are other examples of alpha and beta bias in studies and approaches?
Alpha bias- Biological like gender differences in hormones
Freud- reinforced male dominance and female inferiority
-Bandura as boys showed more aggression than girls
-Role of the father
Beta bias- Biopsych as research into fight/flight mode assumed only male samples are needed as it is generalisable
What are practical applications of gender bias?
Beta- minimises difference but can lead to equal treatment within work and education. However, Hare-Mustin and Marcek argued equality is not always a benefit such as physical demands in pregnancy.
What did Cornwell’s 2013 study show?
Cornwell (2013) noted females are better at learning than males which increases positive attributes of women, reducing stereotypes and making work more inclusive
What is the feminist approach?
Attempts to restore the imbalance in pyschological research and theory as Eagly (1978) claims females are less effective leaders but it is purposeful in putting training programmes in place to allow growth in female leaders
Why is gender bias socially sensitive?
Gender bias forms rigid stereotypes creating widespread beliefs like gender roles in family an women seen as primary caregivers. This could impact the economy as women reduce their intelligence or chance of education by being viewed as maternally worthy
What did Rosenthal’s study show?
Male experimenters were nicer to female participants than male participants. Methodologies and validity are an issue as feminists argue the experiments reduce validity and women due to their controlled nature
What did Formanwicz’s study show?
Analysed 1000 articles on gender bias as not well-funded, published in less prestigious journals lead to less scholars being aware, applied or taken seriously
What is cultural bias?
The tendency to judge all cultures and individuals in terms of your own
cultural assumptions. This distorts or biases your judgements.
What is cultural relativism?
The view that behaviour, morals, standards and values cannot be
judged properly unless they are viewed in the context of the culture in which they
originate.
What is alpha bias in cultural contexts?
Cultural relativism can lead to an alpha bias, where the assumption of real
differences lead psychologists to overlook universals.
What is beta bias in cultural contexts?
Refers to theories that minimise or ignore cultural differences
What is an example of cultural relativism?
Milgram’s study into obedience was originally conducted
using 40 male American participants, but then also replicated using Spanish students
(Miranda et al. found over 90% obedience rates in Spanish students) and Australian
students (where only 16% of female participants continued to the highest voltage setting,
as shown by Kilham and Mann). This suggests that Milgram’s original results were
specifically bound to American cultures.
What is ethnocentrism?
An example of alpha bias and leads to beta bias. Seeing things from the
point of view of ourselves and our social group. Evaluating other groups of people using the standards and customs of one’s own culture. In its extreme form, ethnocentrism can lead to prejudice and discrimination against ‘lesser’ cultures.
What is indigenous pyschologies?
A method of countering ethnocentrism, the development of different groups of theories in different countries.
What is an example of ethnocentrism?
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation is an example of ethnocentrism due to suggesting that a secure attachment was only characterised by moderate separation and stranger anxiety. Therefore, German mothers, whose children showed little separation and stranger anxiety (thus being insecure-avoidant according to Ainsworth’s
system), were deemed as cold and rejecting.
What is the difference between emic and etic studies?
Some researchers use “etic” to refer to objective or outsider accounts, and “emic” to refer to subjective or insider accounts
What is universality in a cultural context?
A study/theory can be applied to all people, no matter the culture
How do we ensure cultural bias is not an issue in research?
-Make sure the sample is not WEIRD (Western, Educated, Intelligent, Rich, Democrat)
-Have a reflexive approach as a research to address personal biases to reduce them
-Do not attempt to apply findings if the study uses only one culture, to apply it and generalise to all
-Use other researchers that are familiar with other cultures
-Be sensitive to cultural norms when reporting findings
-Study a single culture to understand that culture with an emic approach
-Do not assume universal norms across different cultures
What study of attachment has cultural bias?
Bowlby’s monotropic theory suggests Western cultures have a monotropic bond however this ignores collectivist groups who have a caregiving system of multiple caregivers
What study of approaches has cultural bias?
Bandura studied American children but generalised to all children suggesting children are more aggressive when observed an aggressive role model
What study of IQ tests has cultural bias?
General Yerkes- used Western IQ tests on European individuals to assign army roles and create immigration policies which were inaccurate
What study found information about collectivist and individualist cultures?
Takano and Osaka (1999) found that in 14/15 studies, the difference between those cultures did not exist
What is a strength for cultural bias?
Seeing it makes it more identifiable. Recognition can lead to change as Smith an Bond (1988) found 66% of Psychology textbooks were American and 67% of participants in studies are American Psychology undergraduates. This suggests that research is severely underrepresented and can be improved through wider, more diverse sampling
What is another strength for cultural bias?
Improved understanding as it is difficult to approach a study with no subjectiveness at all as biases can be unconscious, meaning consideration of bias can lead to increased understanding in decreasing ethnocentrism. Psychologists hold international conferences to exchange studies across cultures and aim to reduce the effects of the issue
What is a strength of cultural bias referring to a key term?
Indigenous Psychologies- it developed to explicitly draw on the experiences of individuals in different cultural contexts. Afrocentrism emphasises the importance in recognizing African context of behaviours and attitudes. This holds strength towards cultural relativism.
What is a weakness of cultural bias?
Stereotypes as it validates damaging stereotypes like how how cultural bias may advantage those who the culture it was derived from. For example, Americans created the IQ tests in WW2 which African Americans also did and were seen to have a lower IQ, which reinforces the idea that Americans were smarter however it was the culture in which it was made that had an impact of results, not an inferior intelligence. This creates false attitudes on intelligence and negative stereotypes.
What did Nobles’ (1976) study show?
Nobles (1976) argues Western psychology is used as a tool of dominance and oppression as data may be used to justify social policies which harm those of a different culture. This includes restrictions on immigration and racial segregation. Psychology has sustained and failed to challenge research, practice and policy frameworks which are rooted in White supremacy and white normativity.
What is determinism?
Human behaviour is shaped by internal or external forces- free will is an illusion and behaviour has a cause, is predictable and controlled
What is hard determinism?
The view that forces outside of our own co fell shape our behaviour, free will is an illusion and concepts like biology and experience/environment control us
What is soft determinism?
Behaviour is constrained by environmental or biological factors but only to an extent, we have free will
What is biological determinism?
Human behaviour is innate and determined by biological influences like genetics
What is environmental determinism?
Behaviour is caused by external forces like previous experience or conditioning
What is psychic determinism?
Behaviour is a result of innate drives such as id, ego, superego and unconscious conflicts
What are casual explanations?
Everything has a cause- scientific research is deterministic as it uses casual explanations
What is the scientific emphasis on casual explanations?
All events have a cause which allows predictions of behaviour. To establish a cause and effect relationship we need:
-A lab experiment which allows for the independent variable to be manipulated and observe effect on dependent variable
-Extraneous variable to be controlled
-Positive implications of determinism is the high empiricity
What are examples of biological approach in determinism?
Biological Approach- Evolution, Twin Studies, BioPsych
Bowlby Monotropy- Innate attachments
What are examples of environmental determinism?
-Behaviourist Approach
-Cupboard love attachment theory
-Maternal deprivation/institutionalisation
What are examples of psychic determinism?
-Psychodynamic Approach
-Little Hans
-Defence mechanisms
What are examples of soft determinism?
-Cognitive Approach
-SLT
What are examples of free will?
-Humanism
-Person Centred Therapy
Explain a strength of hard determinism with its connection to features of science
Hard determinism is consistent with the features of a science as it allows for manipulation of the independent variable to see its effect on the dependant variable to identify cause and effect. This creates an objective view from psychologists as drawing casual relationships can predict future behaviour
What did Libet’s study show?
It supports biological determinism as motor regions became active before the conscious registration of awareness of decision to move. This supports the idea free will may be an illusion
What is the counterpoint of Libet?
Libet’s findings show the brain is involved in decision making. However, just because the action comes before conscious awareness to act, it doesn’t mean that there was no decision to act in the first place. Our conscious awareness of the decision is a ‘read out’ of our unconscious decision making
What are the practical applications of free will?
Human subjective experience involves the belief we are in control of our actions and behaviour. This is supported by Humanism and PCT, helping therapy and counselling, suggesting we are the controllers of our own behaviour
Why is determinism used as an excuse?
Determinism is incompatible with conventional views on morality and legal systems. Psychologists and theories do not favour the determinist viewpoint because if the view that behaviour is caused by external or internal forces, it could be used as an excuse for offenders. An argument may used that offenders born with a predisposition to be violent or aggressive, mitigating their liability
Why is determinism not applicable to all?
It does not count for individual differences- it underestimates the uniqueness of human beings and their freedom
Why is free will not scientific?
It is an illusion and all behaviour is determined even if we are unwilling to admit it, therefore validity can be questioned.
It is impossible to test as it is a non-physical, vague concept that is unobservable, unquantifiable and unfalsifiable. It is not measureable so it doesn’t exist- this means the resolution of the debate is unlikely
What is nature in the nature-nurture debate?
The view that behaviour is a product of genetic or innate biological factors
What is nurture in the nature-nurture debate?
The view that behaviour is a product of environmental influences
What does hereditry mean?
The process where traits are genetically carried down through inheritance
What is the interactionist approach?
The view that nature and nurture work together to shape human behaviour
What examples in Psychology support the nature argument?
Biological Approach emphasises importance of genetics, hormones and neurochemistry
BioPsych
What examples in Psychology support the nurture argument?
Behaviourist Approach- focuses on enviornment in shaping behaviour
Ainsworth Attachment Styles
SLT
Humanism
How does Maguire’s study support the interactionist approach?
Maguire et al (2000) investigated hippocampi volume of London taxi drivers- larger compared to non-taxi drivers which shows their extended spatial skills. The experience (nurture) of taxi drivers caused a biological change of brain structure (nature).
What studies support the nature debate?
Gottesman (Schizophrenia) showed higher concordance rates for genetic similarities.
How does Plomin disapprove of the nature nurture debate?
Plomin suggested people create their own nurture by actively seeking out environments that fit their nature. (niche-picking)
How is the nature nurture debate socially sensitive?
It suggests that change is unable to occur and upbringing affects behaviour solely
How is the nature nurture debate reductionist?
It lacks capability to look at either side of the argument or other factors, unable to recognise free will
What is biological reductionism?
Pyschologists reducing behaviour to its physiology and in terms of gnes, neurochemistry and biological structures
What is environmental reductionism?
Reducing behaviour to a simple stimulus-response
What is parsimony?
Complex behaviour should always be expained in simpler parts
What is the levels of explanation?
Social + Cultural Explanations (Influence of social groups)
Pyschological Explanations (Cognitive, Behavioural, Environmental)
Biological Explanations (Genetics, Neurotransmitters, Brain structures)
What are examples of biological reductionism?
BioPsychology
Biological Approach
Nature debate
What are examples of environmental reductionism?
Behaviourist Approach
SLT
Attachment- Cupboard Love Theory
What are examples of the psychological level?
Cognitive Approach
What are examples of the sociocultural level?
Van Izjendoorn’s Cultural study
What are examples of holism?
Humanistic Approach
Psychodynamic Approach
What are strengths of reductionism?
-Facilitates scientific inquiry which yields empirical support and objective stance- manageble variables
-Implications for treatments as variables isolated means targeted treatments can be administered
What are weaknesses of reductionism?
Oversimplifies human behaviour which can lead to incomplete understanding and decreased validity such as contextual studies like OCD and Schizophrena
What are strengths of holism?
Provides comprehensive insights into conditions which increases validity
What is an idiographic approach?
Using a small sample or case studies without the establishing of general laws on behaviour. Qualatitative data that is rich and in detail such as interviews
What is a nomothetic approach?
Using a large sample and quantitative data methods to draw general laws about behaviour. This may include statistics, and using sampling beneficial for a larger population like random sampling
What are strengths and weaknesses of an idiographic approach?
Strengths-
Weaknesses-
What are strengths and weaknesses of a nomothetic approach?
