Approaches Paper 2 Flashcards
Who is Rene Decartes and what did he believe?
Decartes was a 17th century philospher who believed the existence of humans was divided into 2 parts- the mind and the body (Cartesian dualism.)
Who is John Locke and what did he believe?
Locke was a 17th century philosopher who believed the mind is blank at birth and knowledge/behaviors/personalities are learnt from experiences.
Who is Charles Darwin and what did he believe?
Darwin was a 19th century figure who shaped ideas in philosophy such as the idea that evolution and genetics play a part in human behavior. Natural selection creates adaptation of phycological traits.
When and where did Wundt establish his lab?
1879 in the University of Leipzig, Germany.
What is Wundt’s approach?
Structuralism- a theory of consciousness that breaks down mental processes to analyze how they make bigger ones.
What is Wundt’s method?
Introspection- examining personal thought processes based on a specific stimuli to self-reflect.
How did Wundt impact the emergence of psychology as a science?
- Used systematic and objective measurement
-Unbiased observation and experimentation
-Rigorous methods which were replicable and controlled
-Lab environment (controlled)
What was the impact of Wundt’s legacy?
-Legitimized psychology as a scientific discipline
-Emphasized controlled experimental conditions and systematic observation
-Inspired future psychologists
-Authored one of the first psychology books
-Trained psychologists across Europe
What is an inference?
Drawing logical conclusions or making interpretations based on available evidence, observations, or prior knowledge.
What are strengths of Wundt?
-Shifted from philosophy to psychology
-Introspection exists today
-More scientific approach-standardized methods
-Testable hypothesis- increases replicability
What are weaknesses of Wundt?
-Introspection relies on non-observable responses
-Hard to explain
-Subjective data- open to interpretation
-Cannot replicate results or come to a conclusion
What is the structure of ‘Evaluate’ questions?
PEELH
What is the conscious in the Psychodynamic approach?
Conscious thoughts and perceptions that one is aware of in the present
What is the pre-conscious in the Pyschodynamic approach?
Memories or past experiences that are not in your present mind but can be remembered
What is the unconscious according to the Psychodynamic approach?
A reservoir of disturbing thoughts or feelings which are out of conscious awareness
What is the id?
-Pleasure principle
-Seeks immediate gratification of needs
-Developed from birth
What is the ego?
-Reality principle
-A buffer between the id and superego
-Expresses needs in a socially acceptable way
-Develops at 2-4
What is the superego?
-Morality principle
-Controls conscience- rewarded for good things, punished for bad things
-Internalization from parental figures
-Develops 5-6
What is ‘Free Association’?
Patient is encouraged to speak freely with no censoring to reveal everything in the mind. Repressed memories may be recovered. Therapist listens and takes notes to provide insights of the unconscious mind
What is ‘Dream Analysis’?
Dreams unlock the unconscious and reveal hidden symbolic desires, which the therapist would decode.
What are the dfferent Pyschosexual stages?
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latency
Genital
What is the Oedipus complex?
1.Boys develop unconscious sexual desire for their mothers
2. They begin to fear their fathers- castration anxiety
3.Boys give up love for mother and identify with their father
4. Superego develops
What is the Electra complex?
- Girl becomes aware she has no penis
- Realises her mother doesn’t either and views them as less powerful
3.Develops penis envy and desires father
4.Girl fears losing love of mother and converts desire of penis to desire of baby
5.Superego develops
What are defence mechanisms?
Unconsciously protecting oneself from anxiety or harmful situations
What is repression?
Unconsciously pushing away unwanted memories out of awareness
What is denial?
Refusing to acknowledge an aspect of reality that is distressing
What is displacement?
Re-directing an impulse from its original target to a less threatening target
What is projection?
Attributing unconscious and unacceptable thoughts onto another person?
What different parts of the Little Hans study can be analysed?
-Horse (father)
-Desiring mother
-Biting phobia (fear of castration)
-Dreams
What is transference analysis?
Patients project feelings or talk to the therapist as if they were talking to someone the words were directed to. Therapist gains insight and patients work through unresolved issues
What are the roles of the unconscious?
- Driving force behind personality and behavior
2.Defence mechanisms
What were Little Han’s dreams?
- Giraffe dream
-Parenting dream
-Plumber dream
What are the strengths of the Pyschodynamic approach?
- Has explanatory power and face validity, making connections between childhood and later development
-Widely accepted theory, accepted by cognitive approach
-Evidence from Little Hans and Williams (1994) for defense mechanisms
-Practical applications like psychoanalysis which is still used today
What are the weaknesses of the Pyschodynamic approach?
-Pyschic determinism- implies free will is an illusion and reduces empowerment
-Lacks scientific credibility- subjective and ungeneralizable
-Concepts lack falsifiability and cannot be empiriclly tested
What are the four assumptions of the behaviorist approach?
- Focus on observable behaviour
- Keep objectivity through lab studies
- All behaviour is learned
- Tabula Rasa
What is classical conditioning?
Associating a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.
What were the steps in Pavlov’s experiment?
1)Give the dog food (unconditioned stimulus). Saliva forms. (unconditioned response)
2)Ring the bell (neutral stimulus). No saliva forms. (no response)
3)Ring the bell and place the dog food. (combining neutral with unconditioned stimulus)
4) Ring the bell (conditioned stimulus) and saliva now is formed which is the conditioned response.
What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect?
Behaviors followed by rewards or punishments affect the likelihood of the behavior being done again.
What is operant conditioning?
A learning process where behavior is shaped by the consequences that follow
What is positive reinforcement?
Something is ADDED to INCREASE the likelihood of a behaviour.
What is positive punishment?
Something is ADDED to DECREASE the likelihood of a behaviour.
What is negative reinforcement?
Something is REMOVED to INCREASE the likelihood of a behaviour.
What is negative punishment?
Something is REMOVED to DECREASE the likelihod of a behaviour.
What is a neutral stimulus?
A stimulus that at first elicits no response.
What is an unconditioned stimulus?
A stimulus that leads to an automatic response.
What is an unconditioned response?
An automatic response to a stimulus.
What is a conditioned stimulus?
A stimulus that can eventually trigger a conditioned response.
What is a conditioned response?
A learned response to a stimulus that was previously normal.
What are the strengths of classical conditioning?
-Determinism (allows predictions)
-Reductionism- the observable behaviours are tested in lab conditions which enhances scientific credibility, reliability and internal validity
-Evidence from studies (Albert the baby, Pavlov’s dog)
-Practical applications by counter conditioning using these principles which gives the theory value
What are the weaknesses of classical conditioning?
-Reductionist- can’t offer a complete account of learning. Other psychologists suggest we store information and make judgements later about which behaviours to perform
-Research in the area is limited as Pavlov uses animals and lacks generalisability as it is anthropomorphic
-Little Albert was not studied long-term so there is no proof of the conditioning lasting
-Lacks ecological validity as research was done in controlled lab conditions
What are the assumptions of the Social Learning Theory?
1)Behaviour is learned through experiences
2) Identification and Role Models- individuals adopt the behaviour of role models
3) Meditational Processes- Bandura emphasises cognitive factors in learning
What is modelling?
Live Models- people physically present
Symbolic Models- people in the media like celebrities fictional characters
What is identification?
An observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like them.
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Learning through observing consequences of other peoples actions. Behaviour is imitated more if seen to be rewarded.
What are mediational processes?
Cognitive processes in learning like:
- Attention- noticing behaviour of others
- Retention- remembering what was observed
- Motor reproduction- being able to perform the behaviour
- Motivation- the desire to perform the behaviour, influenced by either a reward or punishment
What is the humanistic approach?
Human beings and their drive towards growth, self-actualisation and personal fufillment. It values free will, personal responsibility and an optomistic view on human potential.
What is free will?
The ability to make choices and take control of your own actions. It contrasts deterministic views which suggest external influences control behaviour. Humanists believe individuals have the power to shape their own destinies.
What is self-actualisation?
The process of realising ones self full potential and becoming the best version of themself they can be. The pinnacle of human development, involving reaching goals, growth and self-awareness.
What is the order of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?
1.Self-actualisation
2.Self esteem
3.Social
4.Safety
5.Physiological
What needs does self-actualisation fit into?
Growth and self-fulfillment
What needs fit under deficiency needs?
Self-esteem, social, safety, physiological
What needs fit under psychological needs?
Self-esteem and social
What needs fit under basic needs?
Safety and physiological
What are deficiency needs?
Needs which arise from deprivation and must be satisfied to avoid discomfort.
What are examples of physiological needs?
Food, water, shelter,air,sleep
What are examples of safety needs?
Personal safety, financial security, health
What are examples of social needs?
Family bonds, friendships, romantic relationships
What are examples of self-esteem needs?
Confidence, competence, self-worth, recognition, status, admiration from peers
What are growth/self-fulfillment needs?
Personal growth and self improvement
What is Carl Rogers main theory?
Focus on the self
What is self concept?
The idea a person has of themself
What is self esteem?
How much value we place on ourselves
What is idea self?
The person we aspire to be
What is congruence?
Alignment of ideal self and self-concept. How we view ourselves and who we aspire to be matching
What is incongruence?
Non-alignment of ideal self and self concept
What are conditions of worth?
Conditions imposed by others like parents and society, that an individual must meet in order to be loved or valued
What is unconditional positive regard?
Individuals being valued and loved without any conditions attached to their behaviour or achievements
What is the other term for Humanism?
Third Force
What kind of approaches does Humanistic entail?
Holistic, positivity and foundational role
Why do humanists reject the scientific approach?
-A person’s subjective experience is studied rather than objective reality to understand human behaviour in more depth
-Each person can exercise free will and go against determinism
-Each person is a conscious being, not dominated by unconscious primitive instincts
-Humans should be viewed as a whole not decreased to components
-Humans strive towards self-actualisation which cannot be measured objectively or standardised
What is person centered therapy?
Focused on creating an environment where a patient is heard and valued, it encompasses feelings of empathy and genuineness
What is empathy?
Understanding the clients feelings from their perspective
What is genuineness?
Being open and honest
How does PCT support growth?
-Fosters trust, self-exploration and self growth
-Aims to induce congruence, closing the gap between the ideal self and self concept by either developing a more positive self-concept or more realistic ideal self
What are the strengths of the Humanistic Approach?
-Holistic so provides a more valid explanation of behaviour, looking at all factors
-Influential in counselling, educational/occupational therapy
-Emphasises free will and an optomistic view
-Idiographic approach-focuses on subjective experience to understand individuals rather than make theories for all people
-Rogers introduced more rigour with Q-sort method, an objective tool to measure progress with therapy
What are weaknesses of the Humanistic Approach?
-Maslow’s hierarchy of needs- Kenrick suggested it needed updating as it was made in 1943, so may be outdated
-Lacks empirical evidence, rejecting scientific approach, relying on anecdotal observation
-Central ideas like personal growth align more with individualistic cultures, making the approach less applicable in collectivist cultures that prioritise group needs
-Uses qualitative techniques and idiographic approach which makes it difficult to formulate general laws
What is the cognitive approach?
It focuses on how people perceive, process and store information.
-Perception, attention, memory, language and problem solving
What is inference?
Drawing conclusions from observable behaviour, making assumptions about mental processess
What are the internal mental processes?
How we process information:
-Perception
-Attention
-Memory
-Language
-Problem solving
What are schemas?
Mental structures that help to organise and interpret information. They act as frameworks of past experiences that shape perception
What are theoretic models?
Flowcharts of how the mind works:
-Multi-store model of memory- which shows information moving from short to long memory through rehearsal
What are computer models?
Analogies of the brain as a computer:
-Information Processing Approach-input, storage, retrieval
What is the cognitive triad?
-Thoughts, emotion and behaviour
-Suggests there is a chain link between
What are the benefits of schema?
-Can process large amounts of information quickly
-Helps understand what happens next, based on our experience
What is accomodation?
To understand something new by remodeling brainspace (doesn’t fit into an existing schema)
What is assimilation?
Cognitive process of making new information fit into existing schemas
What is Barlett’s War of the Ghosts experiment?
Reading a Native American folk tale to British students
What were the findings from Barlett’s experiment?
1.Unfamiliar details recalled like seals
2.Familiarising of strange things like hunting seals into going fishing
3.Rationalising of the illogical- the story made sense after time
What can be concluded about schemas?
-Long term memory is constantly being adjusted and constructed
-Memories aren’t copies of experiences
-Schemas fill in gaps, shape interpretation and can lead to biases
What other research is there on schemas?
-Brewer and Treyen: Participants would remember state they intended to see in an office but missed the questionable things like a skull
-Loftus and Palmer: Participants memories of a car crash influenced by verbs like ‘hit, smashed’ which changed speed at which they thought car was at
-Beck’s Negative Triad: Negative self-schema can have a negative impact on mental health
Why are theoretic models useful in the cognitive approach?
-Allows theories to be formed about how mental processes lead to observable behaviour
-Explains behaviour in a visual way to help people understand it better
-Simplifies complex mental processes
-Practical for real life applications
Why are computer models useful in the cognitive approach?
-Provides clear structured way to display memory
-Allows for hypothesis testing
-Applications to AI and neuroscience
-Enables objective quantitative measurement which helps standardisation
What are the strengths of the cognitive approach?
-Scientific methods:uses controlled experiments to objectively make inferences
-Real-world applications like education, CBT and AI
-Theoretic models develops WMM, schema theory to explain info processing
-Soft deterministic approach- human behaviour is shaped by internal/external influences with free will
What are the weaknesses of the cognitive approach?
-Machine Reductionism- simplifies complex behaviour, neglecting social and emotional factors
-Oversimplifies cognition- takes a mechanistic view to assume we have linear models of thought
-Relies on inferences which are subjective and not falsifiable
-Low external validity- abstract as mental processes are inferred and not directly observed
What is the biological approach?
Emphasises the belief that all psychological processes have a physiological basis. It assumes that thoughts feelings and behaviours are rooted from biology. They are influenced by genes, biological structures and neurochemical processes which views the brain and the body as the primary determinants of behaviour.
What are genetics?
Basic unit of hereditary passed from parent to child which determines physical and psychosocial features.
What are concordance rates?
The likelihood that two genetically related individuals share the same trait. High= strong genetic influence
Low=suggests environmental factors affect an individual
What are twin studies?
Comparing MZ and DZ (identical and non-identical
What are family studies?
Examine traits across generations comparing first degree, second degree and third degree relatives
What are adoption studies?
Analyse traits in adopted individuals and separate genetic/environmental effects
What are candidate gene studies?
Focus on specific genes believed to influence particular traits/behaviour
What are genotypes?
An individuals genetic makeup/ genes they inherit from their parent
What are phenotypes?
Observable characteristics or traits of an individual such as height, eye colour or behaviour. The phenotype is results from the genotype and environment
What are the biological structures?
The brain- largest part is the celebrum where the cerebral cortex is responsible for thoughts and language, the frontal lobe is involved in decision making and problem solving
Nervous system- the CNS and PNS coordinate behaviour and physiological responses
Endocrine system- hormones like adrenaline and cortisol influence behaviour and emotional responses by affecting bodily functions
What are neurons?
Specialised nerve cells which serve as building blocks of the brain, responsible for transmitting information via electrical signals
What are neurotransmitters?
Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons in the brain and imbalances in neurotransmitters linked to mental health conditions. The BA suggests that correcting these imbalances though medication can improve symptoms, which is the basis of drug therapies
What is evolution?
The gradual process of species changing over time through genetic variation and development of traits that enhance survival for reproduction
What is natural selection?
Mechanism did evolution proposed by Charles Darwin which occurs when individuals with advantageous traits reproduce
What is the survival of the fittest?
Individuals best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on the genes
What are adaptive behaviours?
Traits that increase an individuals chances of survival
What are maladaptive behaviours?
Traits that decrease an individuals ability to survive
What is an example of evolutionary response in human babies?
Rooting Reflex: babies will turn their head and open their mouth when strokes which aids survival
What are strengths of the biological approach?
-Uses scanning techniques
-Gathers empirical evidence which is observable and scientific
-Wide variety of treatments or early interventions
What are limitations of the biological approach?
-Reductionist
-Biology cannot explain consciousness
-Does not account for a wide base of evidence that points to the influence of our environment
-Deterministic as there is a lack of control over our own behaviour
What is cognitive neuroscience?
Conbining principles from cognitive processes like memory and perception with scanning techniques and research on brian structure/function
How has cognitive neuroscience emerged?
Braun Mapping (1870s)- Wernicke’s work on language comprehension mapped the brain
Localisation Theory (1970s-1980s)- Neuroimaging techniques, PET scans while Peterson identifies language areas in brain
Neural basis of high processes (Present)- brains role in planning, moral reasoning involving the prefrontal cortex
What are examples of cognitive neuroscience?
Burnett (2009)- development in social emotions in adolescence and adulthood; specifically stress like how adolescents recruit more anterior regions than adults
Tucking (1994)- showed that episodic and semantic memories were recalled from the prefrontal cortex at different sides
Ratiu (2004)- image analysis of Gage’s skull and how the cerebral injury was limited to the left frontal lobe
What are strengths of cognitive neuroscience?
-Less deterministic as this is the role of experience in shaping the brain
-Advances understanding which provides insights into brain structure and imaging
-Study evidence identifying neurological basis of mental processes which removed blame and stigma of mental health issues
What are weaknesses of cognitive neuroscience?
- Ethics as controversial use of mind mapping for lie detection in courts
-Reductionism as oversimplifies cognition by isolating brain regions ignoring complexity of functions
-Casuality VS Correlations- Brain activity don’t prove casual relationships between brain areas and cognitive processes
