Social Influence Flashcards
What is conformity?
Change in one’s behaviour/opinions as a result of a pressure from a majority/dominant group
What are the 3 types of conformity?
Compliance
Identification
Internalisation
What is compliance?
A superficial change which changed public behaviour but not private attitudes, the person goes along to fit in
What is identification?
When someone values or identifies with a group so changes their public (although not usually private) behaviour to be accepted and fit the social role in the group
What is internalisation
Usually a permanent change as one genuinely believes the group norms, so public and private behaviour is changed even in group absence
What is the lowest and highest level of conformity?
Lowest- compliance
Highest- internalisation
What is the 2-process theory to explain conformity?
Based on 2 central human needs- need to be liked and need to be right
Normative social influence (NSI)
Informational social influence (ISI)
What is Normative Social influence (NSI), what is it associated with and how long does it last?
-Explanation for conformity- go along with majority to be liked, socially approved, avoid rejection and maintain group harmony
-Associated with compliance
-Temporary
-Emotional process
What is Informational Social Influence (ISI), what is it associated with and how long does it last?
-Explanation for conformity- go along as need to be right, majority is likely to be right
-Usually happens in new/ambiguous/crisis situations
-Associated with internalisation
-Permanent
-Cognitive process
What are 3 strengths of the explanations of conformity?
Evidence to support NSI
-Asch’s interview 1951
-conformed as self-conscious/wanted to avoid disapproval
Valid explanation as some conformity is due to need to be liked
Evidence to support ISI
-Lucas et al maths problems
-conformed to ‘students’ on hard questions as didn’t want to be wrong
Valid explanation as people look to others to be right
NSI has a real-world application through normative messages
-Nolan et al hung messages on front doors in California that most residents were trying to reduce energy usage
-significant decrease compared to control group who saw message with no reference to others
People’s behaviour can be positively shaped through NSI, environmental/economical implications
What are 3 weaknesses of the explanations of conformity?
2-process theory incomplete explanation for conformity
-Turner 1991 suggests referent social influence (RSI)
-desire to belong to a group (identification)
Theory is questioned and limited
Hard to determine whether its NSI ISI or both
-Asch dissenting peer reduced conformity
-could provide social support or reduce power of ISI
May operate together, simplistic to consider them separately and independently
Can’t account for all people
-McGhee and Teevan showed nAffiliators cared more about being liked so more likely to conform due to NSI
There are individual differences in conformity, limited explanation
When did Asch’s baseline procedure take place?
1951
Who was involved in Asch’s study?
123 male American college students in groups of 6-8
Where did participants sit in Asch’s study?
Last or second-to-last seat
How were participants deceived in Asch’s research?
They were told it was a perception test, and didn’t realise the other people were confederates
In Asch’s research, how many critical trials (confeds saying same incorrect answer) were done per person?
12/18
In Asch’s research, what did the control group do?
Judge the lengths of the line in isolation
In Asch’s research, what % of the control group got the answer wrong?
0.7%
In Asch’s research, what % conformed and gave the wrong, majority answer?
37%
In Asch’s research, what % of people conformed at least once?
75%
How did Asch know that his participants conformed due to NSI?
He interviewed participants after and they said they went along with the group to fit it
When did Asch’s variations take place?
1955
What were Asch’s 3 variations?
Group size
Unanimity
Task difficulty
In Asch’s variations, what did the group size vary to?
2-16 participants
In Asch’s variation ‘group size’, what % conformed with:
1 confederate?
2 confederates?
3 confederates?
3%
13%
32%
In Asch’s variation, group size, what did he conclude?
Conformity reaches high level and is sufficient with only 3 confederates, as slowly increases with group size increasing until 9 confederates where conformity starts to decrease
This is a curvilinear relationship
In Asch’s variation, unanimity, when 1 confederate gives the correct answer what does the % of conformity fall to?
5.5%
In Asch’s variation, unanimity, when 1 confederate gives a different incorrect answer what does the % of conformity fall to?
9%
In Asch’s variation, why does conformity fall when the group’s unanimous position is broken?
The dissenting peer offers social support so less social approval is needed (NSI)
and/or
The participant has more confidence in their own beliefs (ISI)
How did Asch make his task harder?
Decreased the difference between the lengths of the lines, so it was harder for participants to see the difference
What did Asch find + conclude when he made the task more difficult?
Conformity increased, due to ISI as the situation was more ambiguous
What is a strength of Asch’s research?
Research to support the effects of task difficulty
-Lucas et al easy and hard maths questions with 3 answers from other ‘students’
-higher conformity with harder questions and low confidence on maths abilities
Task difficulty is a variable that affects conformity
What are 3 weaknesses of Asch’s research
Task and situation artificial
-knew it was a study (demand characteristics)
-task was trivial + unnatural
-groups didn’t resemble everyday groups
Can’t generalise to real-world situations, lacks ecological validity
Participants were American men
-women may be more conformist as care more about acceptance + social relationships
-America is individualist, conformity higher in collectivist cultures like China as care more about social group
Research lacks population validity, limited application
Lacks temporal validity
-1950s America had threat of communism so was very conservative, conformity expected
-Perrin and Spencer 1980 said research was a ‘child of its time’ as replicated and only 1/396 trials conformed, cultural change in conformity
Can’t be generalised to contemporary society
What is a social role?
Part played as a member of social groups, due to the expectations of behaviour
What is conformity to social roles?
The extent to which one conforms to expectations associated with that social role due to identification
In what year and by whom was the Stanford Prison experiment conducted?
1973 by Zimbardo et al
What was the aim of the Stanford Prison experiment?
To see if people behave due to dispositional or situational factors
Explain the procedure of the Stanford Prison experiment in 3 steps
- 21 male university students volunteered and were tested for physical and mental stability
- A coin toss randomly assigned each person with prisoner or guard, Zimbardo played the superintendent
- There was experimental realism and prisoners and guards were encouraged to conform to their social roles
How were prisoners and guards encourages to conform to their social roles?
Uniform- deindividuated
Prisoners: loose smock + cap, referred to as numbers not name
Guards: uniform, handcuffs, sunglasses
Instructions-
Prisoners: unexpectedly arrested + shipped, could apply for parole
Guards: reminded about complete power, 3-8hr shifts
What were the findings from the Stanford Prison experiment?
Both quickly identified with their roles.
-The guards dehumanised the prisoners, became abusive aggressive brutal, head counted prisoners, made prisoners clean the toilet with their bare hands
-Prisoners rebelled after 2 days, then became submissive, passive, anxious, subdued, depressed, 3 released due to psychological disturbance, one went on hunger strike
Study was terminated after 6 days although meant to last 2 weeks
What was the conclusion drawn from the Stanford Prison experiment?
People conform to social roles, even against their morality, largely due to situational factors
What are 2 methodological strengths of the Stanford Prison experiment?
High control over extraneous variables
-selection of participants ruled out individual personality differences as all stable + random
Increased internal validity, can draw conclusions
Participants believed the prison environment was real
-90% of conversations about prison life
-prisoner 416 thought prison was a ‘real one, but run by psychologists’
Correctly replicated the social roles in real prison, high internal validity
What are 2 methodological weaknesses of the Stanford Prison experiment?
Not realism of a true prison
-performance based on stereotypes
-one guard based his brutal role on a character from Cool Hand Luke
Little about conformity to social roles in actual prison
Zimbardo exaggerated power of social role
-only 1/3 brutal, 1/3 applied rules fairly and 1/3 actively tried to help prisoners (eg offer cigs)
-most could resist situational pressures to conform to brutal role
Zimbardo minimised the influence of dispositional factors
What is obedience?
When an individual follows a direct order, usually from a figure of authority who can punish upon disobedience
Who studied obedience and when?
Milgram 1963
What was the aim of Milgram’s obedience experiment?
Will people obey unjust orders from an authority figure
Explain Milgram’s baseline research in 5 steps
- 40 American men volunteered, took place at Yale
- The learner and experimenter were confederates, the participant believed learner/teacher allocation was random but they always got teacher
- Participant was given a light shock to prove it was ‘real’
- Learner had to recall, but on the wrong answer they were ‘shocked’ and the voltage increased by 15V each time up to 450V, learner had recorded screams
- At end, participants were debriefed and reassured of normal behaviour and 84% were glad to participate
In Milgram’s research, what % of people stopped at 300V?
12.5%
In Milgram’s research, what % of people stopped at the highest, 450V?
65%
What were the qualitative findings of Milgram’s research?
The participants showed signs of extreme tension (sweat, tremble)
What was the conclusion of Milgram’s research?
Under the right circumstances, ordinary people obey unjust orders
What are 3 weaknesses of Milgram’s baseline research? (short answers as links to SV)
Demand characteristics- only half believed shocks were real (although controlled lab)
Lacks ecological validity, more harmful than real world- Although Hoffling suggests can obey unjustified IRL
Lacks population validity- American males
What are the 3 situational variables tested by Milgram?
Proximity, location and uniform
In terms of proximity, when the teacher and learner were in the same room how many participants stopped at the highest, 450V?
40%
In terms of proximity, when the teacher forced the learner’s hand onto the shock plate, how many participants stopped at the highest, 450V?
30%
In terms of proximity, when the experimenter gave the teacher the instructions over the phone, how many participants stopped at the highest, 450V?
20.5%
In terms of location, when the experiment was done at a run-down office block in Bridgeport, how many participants stopped at the highest, 450V?
47.5%
In terms of uniform, when the experimenter wore ordinary clothes instead of a lab coat, how many participants stopped at the highest, 450V?
20%
How does proximity affect obedience?
Can/can’t psychologically distance yourself from actions
How does location affect obedience?
Challenges legitimacy of authority
How does uniform affect obedience?
A symbol of legitimate authority
What are 3 strengths of Milgram’s research?
Additional evidence supporting the role of uniform affecting obedience
-Bickman passers-by had to do random task, with different uniforms
-security guard obedience highest, then milkman then pedestrian
Uniform does have a powerful effect on obedience
Replicated with consistent findings in other cultures
-in Netherlands, participants had to give insults to job applicants inducing psychological harm
-90% obeyed but much less when the researcher was absent
Increased population validity, relevant to Western cultures + women
Controlled lab environment
-extraneous variables controlled eg: scream recorded
-individually altered variables
High internal validity, more valid conclusions
What are 2 weaknesses of Milgram’s research?
Also low internal validity as aware procedure fake
-participants questioned if shocks were real
-didn’t believe set up for uniform variation, was clearly contrived (deliberately set up)
Unclear conclusions as participants may have responded to demand characteristics
Obedience could be due to dispositional factors -if have authoritarian personality, more likely to obey
-higher levels of authoritarianism amongst obedient participants
Oversimplifies causes of obedience
What are the 2 situational explanations for obedience?
Legitimacy of authority
Agentic state
What is legitimacy of authority?
The amount of social power held by one’s perceived position in a social hierarchy
How can the legitimacy of authority be increased?
Visible symbols
eg: location + proximity in Milgram
What are legitimate authority granted?
The power to punish
Is social power good or bad?
Good as allows society to run smoothly eg: police
Bad if destructive eg: Milgram’s study, Hilter and other dangerous leaders
What is the autonomous state?
Behaving according to one’s own principles and feeling responsible for their actions
When is someone most likely to act in the autonomous state?
Around peers or people inferior
What is the agentic state?
Belief in acting as an agent for an authority figure, so feeling no personal responsibility for actions
What is an agent, and how do they feel?
Someone who acts for, or in the place of another
Experiences high anxiety/moral strain as they realise what they are doing is wrong, but feel powerless to disobey
Why did participants in Milgram’s study remain in the agentic state?
Binding factors-minimised damaging effect and reduces moral strain
Shifts responsibility to victim/denies damage done to victim
What is an agentic shift?
Change from autonomous state to agentic state
Why does one experience an agentic shift?
Person is legitimate authority with greater power in the social heirarchy
Belief that authority will accept responsibility to maintain self-image
What is a strength and a weakness for the agentic state as an explanation for obedience?
Milgram’s study supports role of agentic state in obedience
-when participants were hesitant, they asked who would be responsible if the learner was hurt
-experimenter replied that it was them, participants continued with no further objections
Shows that once participants don’t feel responsible, they act more easily as the experimenter’s agent
Cannot explain all research into obedience
-Rank and Jacobson found almost 90% of nurses disobeyed order from a legitimate doctor to overdose a patient
-remained autonomous
-same with many of Milgram’s participants
Can only explain some forms of obedience
What is a strength and a weakness for the legitimacy of authority as an explanation for obedience?
Research to support
-Milgram
-Bickman
Symbols for legitimate authority can affect obedience
Cannot explain disobedience in a clear + accepted hierarchy
-Rank and Jacobson 16/18 nurses disobeyed doctors to overdose a patient
-some of Milgram’s participants disobeyed scientific authority
People may just be more/less obedient, may be innate, or better explained by the authoritarian personality explanation
What does a dispositional explanation for obedience suggest?
Internal characteristics lead to obedience
If someone has an authoritarian personality, what are they like?
- Strict adherence to conventional values, with an inflexible way of thinking
- Respect + submission to authority, and dismissive to inferior, who are responsible for the ills of society
What 5 experiences as a child can lead to someone having an authoritarian personality via harsh parenting?
CHESS
Conditional love
High standards
Expectation of absolute loyalty
Severe critisim
Strict dicipline
What is the psychodynamic explanation for people with an authoritarian personality?
Experiences as a child create feelings of resentment and hostility
Cannot express these feelings as a child due to fear of punishment
Scapegoating occurs, where this fear is displaced onto weaker
Who investigated the authoritarian personality, when, and with what sample?
Adorno et al 1950
Over 2000 middle-class white Americans
How did Adorno et al study people’s unconscious attitudes towards other ethnic groups?
F-scale (potential for fascism scale)
If one scores high on the F-scale, what personality traits do they have?
Obedient to those of high status, identifying with them
Hostile towards those of lower status- prejudice
Dogmatic and inflexible is their cognitive style of thinking
Conventional attitudes + stereotypes
What is a strength of the authoritarian personality as an explanation of obedience?
Research to support
-Milgram and Elms did a follow-up study with some people from the original obedience studies
-people who were fully obedient completed F-scale and scored highly compared to those that weren’t obedient
Authoritarian personality is valid to explain obedience
What explanations can be used to counter each other as explanations for obedience?
Situational explanation and dispositional explanation
What are 3 weaknesses of the authoritarian personality as an explanation of obedience?
Milgram and Elms also found that some obedient people also had characteristics unusual for those with an Authoritarian personality
-many had good relationships with both parents
Limited explanation as complex links
Flawed methodology
-may measure tendency to agree (acquiesence)
-also research shows correlation not causation
Data meaningless, may not cause obedience
Alternate theory to explain
-many obeyed in Nazi Germany, however not all individuals will have authoritarian personality
-social identity theory better explains, need for group membership
Obedience better explained by SIT for real-life discrimination such as the Nazis
What is resistance to social influence?
The ability to withstand the social pressure to conform to the majority, or obey authority
What are the 2 explanations for resistance to social influence?
Social support (situational)
Locus of control (dispositional)
How does social support lead to resistance of social influence?
Presence of people resisting who act as models showing resistance is possible
People believe they have an ally, increasing their confidence to resist social influence
How does social support lead to resistance of conformity? How is this shown in Asch’s research?
Breaks the unanimous position of the group, reducing the power of NSI
Conformity reduced to 5.5%, however, this wasn’t long-lasting as if the dissenter conformed, the participant conformed again too
How does social support lead to resistance of obedience? How is this shown in Milgram’s research?
The model of dissent challenges the legitimacy of authority
There is a diffusion of responsibility, so consequences are lower
Obedience reduced to 10% with a disobedient confederate
What are 2 strengths of social support as an explanation of resistance to social influence? No weaknesses YAY :)
Research to support for dissenting peers helping to resist social influence
-Allen + Levine with task similar to Asch, with no peer 3% resisted, with peer 64% resisted, with peer with thick glasses 36% resisted
-Gamson et al 88% disobeyed when discussing task in groups
Social support helps resist social influence, but the extent of the effect depends on the reliability of the source
Real-world application
-Teen Fresh Start USA helps pregnant teens resist pressures to smoke
-those with a mentor less likely to smoke than control with no mentor
Social support can help resist social influence as an intervention in the real-world
Who was the locus of control explanation proposed by, and what is it?
Rotter
The extent people believe they have control over events in their life, displayed on a LoC continuum
Why are people with an external locus of control not likely to resist pressures of social influence?
Believe in luck and fate
Passive, and take less personal responsibility over actions
Decreased independence increases the likelihood they’ll accept the influence of others
Why are people with an internal locus of control likely to resist pressures of social influence?
Takes personal responsibility over actions and have own beliefs
Often leaders, high-achieving and intelligent
What is a strength and a weakness of locus of control as an explanation of resistance to social influence?
Research support for LoC and resistance to obedience
-Holland repeated Milgram’s study
-37% of internals not to the highest shock level but only 23% of externals not to the highest shock level
Increases validity of LoC as an explanation for disobedience
Only explains resistance in some situations
-LoC only significantly affects behaviour in new situations
-little influence in social influence for familiar situations, previous experiences a greater determinant of social influence
Limited explanation
What is minority influence?
When a minority of people persuades others to adopt their beliefs/attitudes/behaviours leading to internalisation/conversion bringing about social change
What is Moscovici’s conversion theory (1980)?
In majority influence, people comply to the majority and try to fit in without careful consideration
However, with minority influence, people analyse their views and think deeper to understand and believe it is right (ISI) so the influence is deeper + longer lasting
What are the 3 main processes in minority influence?
Consistency
Commitment
Flexibility
What does consistency do for minority influence?
Makes the minority influence effective if the beliefs are the same over time (diachronic) and between people (synchronic)
How does consistency work in the conversion process? What may this look like?
- Draws attention and increases intrest in the view
- Makes others reassess their views
Mentioning wherever possible
What does commitment do for minority influence?
Makes it more powerful if dedicated via personal sacrifices as know they aren’t acting out of self intrest
How does commitment work in the conversion process? What may this look like?
- Greater cost to join, but they risk
- This draws attention/intrest to the view via the augmentation principle
Doing more than just talking
What does flexibility do for minority influence?
More effective by the possibility of accepting a compromise
If one was just consistent, they are seen as rigid, unbending, and dogmatic which is offputting
How does flexibility work in the conversion process? What may this look like?
Being prepared to adopt/accept counters
Need a balance of flexibility and consistency
Modifying ideas
What was the procedure of Moscovici et al’s 1969 research?
Groups of 6 (with 2 confederates) viewed 36 blue slides varying in intensity
Had to state whether the slides were blue or green out loud
One group has consistent minority (all 36 green)
One group inconsistent minority (24 green and 12 blue)
Participants were tested for colourblindness prior to the study
What were the findings from Moscovi et al’s 1969 research?
Consistent minority- 8.42% of participants gave wrong answer
Inconsistent minority- 1.25% of participants gave wrong answer
Control- 0.25% gave wrong answer
A consistent minority is more effective
What are 2 strengths of the minority influence conversion process?
Research for the importance of consistency
-Moscovici et al 1969
-consistent minority had greater effect on changing the views
Consistency is important and required for minority influence
There is evidence for the deeper processing involved in minority influence
-Martin et al had a message presented and one group heard minority agree, other heard majority
-when exposed to a conflicting view, the minority group were less willing to change their opinion
Message was processed deeply and had enduring effect, supporting central argument of how minority influence works
What are 2 weaknesses of the minority influence conversion process?
Research makes clear distinctions between majority and minority groups
-although controlled, in real-world, social influence situations are much more complicated
-majority has much more power
-minority more committed, here just smallest group
Limited for what it can say about real-world situations
Research uses artificial tasks
-identifying colour
-jury decisions in real life can be life threatening
Lacks ecological validity, limited explanation
What is social change?
A process that occurs when whole societies adopt new beliefs/attitudes/behaviours
How can minority social influence lead to social change in 5 steps?
- Consistency- draws attention → cognitive conflict → deeper processing
- Commitment- lives risked → augments message as dedicated
- Flexibility- listening to others’ POV → adapting
- Snowball effect- more people pay attention. and back minority → turns into majority
- Social cryptomnesia- memory social change occurred but not how
How did the Civil Rights movement show how minority social influence created social change?
Consistency- civil rights marches with consistent activism
Commitment- Rosa Parks risked lives
Snowball effect- Civil Rights Act 1964
What are 2 strengths about the role of social influence processes in social change?
Minority influence can explain change
-deeper processing leads to the change
Social change explained by central point of minority influence
Research for NSI leading to social change
-Nolan et al, significant decrease in energy usage
-conformity via NSI can lead to social change
Explanation is valid
What are 2 weaknesses about the role of social influence processes in social change?
Deeper processing may not play a role in how minority influence leads to social change
- deeper processing only occurs when views are different
-may occur in majority aswell
As central element of minority influence is challenged, validity is decreased as an explanation of social change
Minority influence research overlooks the importance of identification
-Bashir says less likely to be environmentally friendly as there is a negative association/sterotypes ‘tree-huggers’
To be influential as a minority and bring about social change, people must identify with the group
