Approaches to psychology Flashcards
When did Wundt open his first psychology lab and where?
1879 in Germany
Why was Wundt important?
Separated psychology from philosophy
Influenced later psychologists and studies
What 2 approaches did Wundt use and what do they mean?
Structuralism- theory of consciousness
Reductionism- processes can be reduced to cause and effect
What is introspection?
The study of one’s own consious, internal thoughts images and sensations
What is done in introspection?
- sensation and perception studied
-participants describe experiences with stimuli - analysing thoughts and feelings internally
What is recorded in introspection?
Reaction time and quality of the sensations
What is often used in introspection?
A metronome
What are 2 strengths of introspection?
-psychology becoming a science- separated from philosophical roots
-still used today in therapy
What are 2 weaknesses of introspection?
-unscientific- subjective, not same thoughts each time
-self-report lacks accuracy, little conscious knowledge
-doesn’t explain how the mind works
What are the 5 features that make something a science?
- Predictablity
- Hypothesis testing
- Objectivity
- Replication
- Control
PHORC
Give 2 reasons psychology might be seen as a science
Same aims as science
Scientific procedures in behaviourist, cognitive, biological approach (control, no bias)
Give 3 reasons psychology might not be seen as a science
Some approaches/methodology subjective + bias
Hard to represent lots of people (generalise)
Extraneous variables are hard to control
What are the main assumptions of the psychodynamic approach
- behaviour influenced by unconscious forces
- we have biological motivations and instincts
- childhood development influences adulthood
What are the 3 levels of consciousness according to the psychodynamic approach?
Conscious, preconscious, unconscious
What does conscious mean?
What we are aware of at any given time
What does preconscious mean?
Memories we can recall when wanted
What does unconscious mean?
Repressed memories/desires that may be anxiety causing, storehouse for biological drives + instincts
What are the 3 parts of the personality according to the psychodynamic approach?
Id, ego, superego
What principle does the id work on and when does this part of the personality appear?
Pleasure principle, birth
What principle does the ego work on and when does this part of the personality appear?
Reality principle, 3 years
What principle does the superego work on and when does this part of the personality appear?
Morality principle, 5 years
How does the ego solve conflict between satisfaction and morals?
Mediates between the id and the superego to reduce anxiety through unconscious defense mechanisms
What do unconcious defence mechanisms do and what are the 3 types?
Protect the conscious self
Repression, denial, displacement
What’s another word for a slip of the tongue?
Freudian slips
What are the 5 psychosexual stages developed by Freud?
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latency
Genital
What age range is the oral stage?
0-1 years
What age range is the anal stage?
1-3 years
What age range is the phallic stage?
3-6 years
What age range is the latency stage?
6 years - puberty
What age range is the genital stage?
Puberty - adult
What are the 2 complexes at the phallic stage?
Oedipus
Electra
According to the psychodynamic approach, what can happen is a child doesn’t receive enough pleasure or receives too much pleasure?
They can become fixated at that stage which can influence bad personality traits in adulthood
What is an example of a fixation in the oral stage?
Smoking
What is an example of a fixation in the anal stage?
Anal retentive (perfectionist)
What is an example of a fixation in the phallic stage?
Narcissistic
What is an example of a fixation in the genital stage?
Struggle to form heterosexual relationships
What year was the Little Hans case study?
1909
Why was Little Hans afraid of horses?
The horse’s big penis symbolised father
Hans had castration anxiety due to the Oedipus complex and sexually loving his mum
Being afraid of horses was a displacement for his repressed fear of his father
Give 3 reasons why Little Hans might not be a good case study
- Results can’t be generalised
- Anxiety could be from mother’s threats or seeing a horse fall
- Info via the dad so could be bias
Give 3 reasons why the psychodynamic approach might be a good theory
Empirical evidence for defence mechanisms
-Fisher and Greenberg, 2 groups formed visual memories, 1 group recalled and 1 group suppressed
-the group that suppressed found it harder to identify the distorted image after fMRI scan
Trying to forget is useful strategy to reduce effects of Trauma
Real-world application with psychoanalysis therapy
-first psychological, not biological treatment
-brings forward unconscious memories to deal with them
Has value, new approach to treatment
Pioneer theory for shift in psychological thinking
-new procedures for gathering empirical evidence
-formed basis of other theories (Bowlby Theory of Attachment) which showed that childhood affects adulthood
Proves Ψ as a science
Give 2 reasons why the psychodynamic approach might NOT be a good theory
Very unscientific
-case studies can’t be generalised to normal people, also subjective (Little Hans)
-unfalsifiable concepts (id/ego/superego) as not tangible
Little objective evidence, not valid
Shows psychic determinism
-humans have little free will as unconscious
-if people believe they have little control, may develop depression
Negative impact on mind and behaviour
What is behaviorism?
A scientific approach by John Watson developed in the early 1900s
What are the 3 assumptions of the behaviourist approach?
- Nearly all behaviour is learnt, born as a ‘blank slate’
- Animals and humans learn in the same way, via stimulus-response
- The mind is irrelevant as only observable data is measured
What are the 2 types of conditioning?
Classical and operant
What are 3 of the principles of classical conditioning?
- Generalisation- similar CS (eg dif pitch) produces CR
- Extinction- CS without UCS results in CR disappearing
- Spontaneous recovery- CR can appear extinguished but can appear at a later time
How does classical conditioning work?
UCS triggers UCR
UCS + NS triggers UCR
NS alone as CS triggers CR
In classical conditioning, what does UCS stand for?
Unconditioned stimulus
In classical conditioning, what does UCR stand for?
Unconditioned response
In classical conditioning, what does NS stand for?
Neutral Stimulus
In classical conditioning, what does CS stand for?
Conditioned stimulus
In classical conditioning, what does CR stand for?
Conditioned response
When and where did Pavlov’s dog experiment take place?
Russia early 1900s
In Pavlov’s dogs experiment, what was the:
UCS-
UCR-
NS-
CS-
CR-
UCS- food
UCR- salivation
NS- bell
CS- bell
CR- salivation
When and by who did the ‘little Albert learned fear’ experiment take place
Watson and Rayner 1920
In ‘little Albert learned fear’, what was the:
UCS-
UCR-
NS-
CS-
CR-
UCS- loud bang
UCR- fear
NS- white rat
CS- white rat, anything white/fluffy eg: santa’s beard
CR- fear + crying
What were 3 criticisms of the ‘little Albert learned fear’ experiment?
Unethical- harm induced
Single case study- not everyone develops a fear
Lacks ecological validity- artificial
What is the basis of operant conditioning?
Behaviour is learnt, shaped and maintained through consequences
What are the 3 parts that shape behaviour in operant conditioning?
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishement
What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement results in a reward for behaviour, but negative reinforcement results in the removal of consequence.
However, both increase the likelihood of a behaviour to be repeated.
What is punishment in operant conditioning?
Unpleasant consequence for behaviour which decreases the likelihood for the behaviour to reoccur
How did the Skinner’s box experiment work?
- Rats accidentally pressed a lever which dispensed food or stopped an electric shock
- Rats learned to press it quicker the more they were in the box
- This promotes behaviourism as the rats learnt through positive/negative reinforcement
What is continuous reinforcement?
Reinforced every time-> low response rate and behaviour quickly extinguished
What are variable intervals (reinforcement schedules)?
Reinforced every __seconds-> stable response rate and behaviour gradually extinguished
What is the variable ratio (reinforcement schedules)?
Reinforced unpredictabilty-> very high response rate and behaviour not extinguished
What are 2 strengths of the behaviourist approach?
Approach applied to real life
-CC used to treat phobias
-OC used in prison (token economies)
Increases value of the approach
Scientific methodology used
-objective + controlled, causal r/ship established
Helped raise status of psychology as a science
What are 2 weaknesses of the behaviourist approach?
Oversimplified, may be other factors causing behaviour
-mental/cognitive processes also involved in learning
Learning is more complex, mental processes essential
Reliance on animals, environmental determinism
-humans more complex, have free will + conscious decisions
Hard to generalise + draw conclusions for people
What is the Social Learning Theory (SLT)
Bridge between behaviourism and cognitive approach. There are cognitive mediational processes that occur between the stimulus and reponse
How is behaviour learnt in SLT?
Models (imitation) and vicarious reinforcement
What are the 2 types of models and give an example for each?
Live model- eg parent
Symbolic model- eg tv character
How does a person identify with a role model?
If they possess similar characteristics, or are attractive with high status
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Seeing others being rewarded/punished for behaviour influences imitation
What are the 4 cognitive mediational processes?
Attention, retention,(learning) reproduction, motivation (performing)
What are 3 assumptions of the Social Learning Theory?
- concerned with human, not animal, behaviour
- people are active manipulators of their environment
- learning occurs indirectly through interpersonal experiences in a social context
When, and by whom was the Bobo Doll experiment done?
1961, Bandura et al
How many people, and of what age, took part in the Bobo Doll experiment?
36 boys and 36 girls aged 3-6
How was the Bobo Doll experiment carried out?
Children witnessed adult play with aggressive or non-aggressive toys for 10min, control group didn’t witness adults
Children the alone and observed for 20min
What were the results from the bobo doll experiment?
-In terms of physical/verbal aggression, the aggressive group committed the most aggressive acts, followed by the control group, followed by the non-aggressive group
-Boys were more aggressive than girls
-More imitation occurred if the model was the same gender/sex as the child
What are 3 strengths and 4 weaknesses of the bobo doll study?
Strengths:
-evidence for SLT
-lab experiment so controlled
-replicable
Weaknesses:
-lacks ecological validity
-can’t generalise findings (other ages)
-ethical issues-> promotes aggression
-bobo doll designed to be hit
What are 3 strengths of the Social Learning Theory?
Research to support it
-bobo dolls
-evidence for modelling and VR
Supports key concepts of theory, valid
Recognises importance of cognitive factors
-learn both directly and indirectly
-can store information and decide when to use
More comprehensive
Explains cultural differences
-Yanomamo tribe is aggressive but !Kung San isn’t when both have testosterone
-cultural norms and values transmitted through observance
Can understand + explain differing behaviours
What are 2 weaknesses of the Social Learning Theory?
Casuality issues
-Siegal and McCormick show that those with deviant attitudes seek out similar peers as they’re more fun
-don’t observe + imitate, just seek out
SLT may not be cause of all behaviour, like delinquency, validity questioned
Underestimates biological factors such as testosterone
-boys more aggressive than girls in Bobo doll
SLT doesn’t explain this, must be other factors, lowers validity of explanation
What are the 4 main assumptions of the cognitive approach?
- internal mental processes should be studied scientifically
- sensory information is actively mediated by motivation, belief, perception, memory (IMP) to produce a response
- mental processes are like information processors in a computer
- IMP can go wrong which results in abnormal behaviour (distorted + irrational thinking)
How does the flow diagram work in the cognitive approach?
Stimulus -> complex mental processes -> response
What type of determinism does the cognitive approach believe in?
Soft determinism- behaviour determined by internal, external factors as well as free will
As behaviour can’t be observed, what does the cognitive approach do?
Use inferences-reaching a logical conclusion on the basis of evidence from measuring observable behaviour
What is a schema?
Mental framework of ideas for the interpretation of information
Are you born with a schema?
Babies are born with a simple motor schema which becomes more detailed and sophisticated with time
Why are schemas needed?
To process a lot of information quickly and to take a mental shortcut to prevent overwhelm
What is an issue with schemas?
They may distort information and create perceptual errors and stereotypes
Who created the rat-man schema and when?
Bulgelski and Alampay 1962
What 2 models are used to explain/make inferences about mental processes?
Computer and theoretical
What do theoretical models suggest?
Information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages
How are theoretical models presented and give 2 examples:
Pictorial- boxes and arrows
Multi-store model of memory
Working memory
input -> storage -> retrieval
What does the computer model suggest?
The mind functions like a computer when processing information
In the computer model, what does the brain, working memory and long-term memory equate to
CPU- Brain
RAM- working memory
Hard drive- Long term memory
How is data inputed in a computer and human? (computer mode)
Keyboard, sense organs
How is data processed in a computer and human? (computer model)
Computer processor, brain
How is data outputted in a computer and human? (computer model)
Monitor, action
How does data travel in a computer and human? (computer mode)
Wires, neurons
When was the term ‘cognitive neuroscience’ first used and by who?
1971 by George Miller
What is cognitive neuroscience?
Scientific study which maps brain areas to a specific cognitive function
When was cognitive neuroscience first done?
1860s, Broca identified that damage to an area of the frontal lobe (Broca’s area) impairs speech
What can new neuroscience technology/scans show?
Thought + neurological basis for disorders
What can ‘brain fingerprinting’ do? (cognitive neuroscience)
Analyses brain wave of eyewitness to see if they’re telling the truth (court)
What are 2 strengths of the cognitive approach?
Uses the scientific method
-well controlled objective behaviour measured in lab
-emergence of neuroscience is more biological, Credible scientific basis
Real-life application
-CBT which uses logic + evidence to rationalise thoughts
-contributes to artificial intelligence (AI)
Approach has high value
What are 3 weaknesses of the cognitive approach?
Studies of mental processes often use artificial stimuli
-Jacobs 1887 digit span test, recalled string of letters/numbers which is artificial
Lacks external validity
Machine reductionism
-computers don’t forget & make mistakes
-ignores influence of emotional + motivational factors
-eg: memory influenced by anxiety
Lacks validity
What else is the humanistic approach called?
The person-centred approach
What are the 4 main assumptions of the humanistic approach?
-all people are inherently good and are innately driven to achieve their full potential
-everyone is unique, looks at feelings of individual not just observable behaviour
-idiographic approach (not nomothetic) so studies individual not a set of generalised rules
-behaviour due to free will, affected by one’s self concept and subjective feelings
What are the 5 stages on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs for motivation?
- Self actualisation
- Esteem
- Love and belonging
- Safety
- Psychological needs
What has to be done to move upwards on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
The layer below must be satisfied- but each level is temporary
What is self-actualisation?
The innate desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential
What are 4 qualities of a self-actualised person?
Self-aware
Creative
Fully accepting
Deals with uncertain/unknown
What did Rogers believe in terms of self actualisation?
Your path to it can be blocked (eg raised poorly) which can lead to psychological problems
What do ‘conditions of worth’ do, give an example and state what it causes?
Limits love on children
‘I will only love you if’
Low self esteem, values others happiness over their own
What did Rogers believe we’re the 2 parts to the self?
Self-concept + ideal self
What is one’s self-concept dependent on?
Unconditional positive regard or conditions of worth, particularly as a child
When does incongruence occur and what happens? (humanistic)
Too big a gap between the 2 selves- self-actualisation isn’t possible due to feeling worthless
What therapy did Rogers develop in the humanistic approach?
Client-centred therapy
What does client-centred therapy do?
Reduce the gap between the self-concept and ideal self. The client is in charge of what’s talked about and the therapist brings awareness to thoughts, actions and behaviour and rephrased them with unconditional positive regard. Being genuine and empathetic is important.
What are 2 strengths of the humanistic approach?
Holistic approach, not reductionist
-more complete + meaningful understanding of complex human behaviour as a whole
-not just S-R or id ego superego
Higher validity by considering meaningful human behaviour
Real-world application for mild conditions
-self-help groups + therapy, person-centred approach used on Childline
-motivation in the workplace
Impact + value in psychology
What are 2 weaknesses of the humanistic approach?
Rejection of the scientific approach
-abstract concepts difficult to test empirically (eg: self-actualisation, congruence)
-thus, little experimental research to support
Low validity in explaining human behaviour
Culturally biased through Western + individualist lens
-many central ideas (eg: personal growth) associated with individualist cultures
-collectivist emphasis interdependence and group needs, so ideals of humanistic psychology not as important
Doesn’t apply universally and is culturally-specific
What are the 3 main assumptions of the biological approach?
- Behaviour explained by evolution, genes, biological structure and neurochemistry
- The mind is within the brain, they’re not separate
- The environment and the brain work together to produce structural changes in the brain
What does the biological approach suggest?
Everything is biological before it’s psychological
What is the theory of evolution?
G- genetic variation
E- environmental pressure
N- natural selection
I- inheritance
E- evolution
What is evolution?
The change in heritable traits through natural selection within a population over generations
Who proposed the theory of natural selection?
Charles Darwin in the 19th centuary
What are genes?
An instruction for a particular characteristic, in different forms (alleles- dominant or recessive)
What is the genotype?
Genetic code in DNA that determines the potential for a characteristic
What is the phenotype?
The way genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological traits, determined by the interaction of genes and the environment
What is heredity?
The passing on of characteristics through genes
What is hereditability?
The amount of variability in a trait that can be attributed to genetic differences
How has the genetic basis of behaviour been researched?
Family studies
Twin studies
Adoption studies
How do twin studies work to research the genetic basis of behaviour?
To investigate whether psychological characteristics have a genetic basis by analysing the concordance rates of monozygotic twins
What is the meta-analysis study done by Gottesman for twins?
Monozygotic twins 48% chance of developing schizophrenia if one has it
Dizygotic twins only 17% chance of developing
Genes and the environment are both factors in the development of schizophrenia
What is the influence of biological structures and neurochemistry on behaviour?
Nervous system
Endocrine system
Neurotransmitters
Hormones
What is the nervous system?
Neurons transmit nerve impulses in electrical/chemical signals which directs behaviour
What is the endocrine system?
Regulates circulation of hormones (released by glands) which influences behaviour
What are neurotransmitters?
At the end of a neuron, neurotransmitters jumps synapse, triggers/inhibits nerve impulse, stimulating brain
What are hormones?
Physiological reaction on a cell, altering its activity
What are 3 strengths of the biological approach?
Scientific methods
-precise + highly objective
-scanning techniques unbias eg: fMRI
Valid + reliable approach
Real-life application
-drug treatments
-eg: antidepressants to fix neurochemical imbalance
Can alleviate symptoms, improved QOL
Research to support genetic influence
-twin study Gottesman
Genetic and environmental factors are important
What are 3 weaknesses of the biological approach?
Evolutionary explanation has problems
-unfalsifiable and can’t test empirically
-some behaviour has no reproductive benefit (eg: culture)
Not completely scientific theory of human behaviour
Reductionist
-breaks down into smallest components
-ignores cognitive, emotional factors
Can’t fully understand behaviour
Determinist
-have no control, ‘criminal gene’ may excuse behaviour or provoke prejudice is screened for the gene
People labelled or use excuses, ignores free will
