Attachment Flashcards
What is attachment?
A 2-way emotional bond where each individual sees the other as vital for their emotional security
What are the 2 types of caregiver infant interactions?
Reciprocity and Interactional synchrony
What is reciprocity?
A mutal process (turn-taking) where each person responds to the other and elicts a response from them
By reciprocity being a mutal process, what does this suggest towards infants role in attachment?
They have an active role in attachment, not just caregiver
In terms of reciprocity, what is an alert phase?
Where the baby signals their readiness for interaction
How often did mothers respond to their infant’s alert phase, and who suggested this?
2/3 of the time
Feldman and Eidelman 2007
Who suggested that the mother’s response to the alert phase can vary, and why?
Finegood et al 2016
External factors eg: stress
What is interactional synchrony?
The caregiver and infant reflect eachother’s actions and emotions (mirroring) in a coordinated way
Who did a study into interactional synchrony and when?
Meltzoff and Moore 1977
In Meltzoff and Moore’s 1977 study on interactional synchrony, how young were the babies?
From 2 weeks +
In Meltzoff and Moore’s 1977 study on interactional synchrony, why were the observations filmed?
So the observations could be independently observed (inter-observer reliability)
In Meltzoff and Moore’s 1977 study on interactional synchrony, what did the adult have to do, and what was found?
The adult displayed 1 of 3 distinct gestures, or 1 of 3 facial expressions. There was a significant association between the adult’s gesture/expression and the baby’s action, more than what would happen by chance.
What are 2 strengths of research into caregiver-infant interactions?
Well controlled:
-babies don’t know/care to be observed, reduces DC
-filmed for IOR
High reliability and validity
Research to suggest importance for interactions
-Isabella et al 1989
-high synchrony = high quality attachment
Interaction important for development
What are 3 weaknesses of research into caregiver-infant interactions?
Hard to interpret behaviour
-babies lack coordination
-small + subtle movements, could be random
Can’t be certain behaviour has special meaning
Just observing doesn’t show developmental importance
-reciprocity + interactional synchrony are just names with no purpose
Not sure if even important in development
Socially sensitive research
-suggests that some parenting choices can disadvantage children, eg: returning early to work
Can provoke guilt, reduce QOL
When was Schaffer and Emmerson’s research carried out?
1964
What are the 4 stages of attachment according to Schaffer and Emmerson?
Stage 1: asocial stage
Stage 2: indiscriminate attachment
Stage 3: specific attachment
Stage 4: multiple attachments
In Schaffer and Emmerson’s research, describe the sample of participants
60 babies mostly from working-class families in Glasgow
What type of study was Schaffer and Emmerson’s, and why
Longitudinal study- studied every month for 1 year, and again at 18 months
How were findings collected in Schaffer and Emmerson’s research?
Observations (testing stranger and separation anxiety)
Interviews with mother (protest shown by babies)
Describe how babies act in the asocial stage (1)
-similar behaviour towards humans and inanimate objects, although a slight preference for people, and particularly familiar people of whom the babies are easily comforted by
-start forming bonds as the basis for later attachment
Describe how babies act in the indiscriminate attachment stage (2)
When does this stage occur?
Approx 2-7 months
-more observably sociable
-clear preference for humans, and for familiar people
-accepts comfort from anyone
-no stranger and seperation anxiety
Describe how babies act in the specific attachment stage (3)
When does this stage occur?
Approx 7 months
-forms specific attachment with primary attachment figure, the person who interacts the most with the baby (not to do with time spent)
-this is the mother 65% of the time
-50% displayed separation and stranger anxiety
Describe how babies act in the multiple attachments stage (4)
When does this stage occur?
Shortly after stage 3- 29% formed multiple attachment within a month of forming a specific attachment
-extends attachment behaviour to people they regularly spend time with (secondary attachment)
-at 18 months, 32% had formed 5+ attachments
Give 2 strengths of Schaffer and Emmerson’s research
High external validity
-most research done by parents during ordinary activities
-babies not affected as don’t know they’re being observed
Increases credibility of study
Practical application
-plan to start daycare in stage 1/2 as problematic in stage 3
-can plan daycare
Improves QOL for parent
Give 3 weaknesses of Schaffer and Emmerson’s research
Issues with the mother as reporter (internal validity)
-not objective
-bias (SDB)
-miss/misremember info
Reduces accuracy
Low validity of measures for asocial stage
-poor coordination so signs missed
Conclusions on flawed methodology
Hard to generalise to different backgrounds
-rich may have nanny
-collectivists may have multiple attachments from earlier
Reduces explanatory power of explanation
According to Schaffer and Emmerson’s research, what % of fathers are the primary attachment figure?
3%
According to Schaffer and Emmerson’s research, what % of fathers are the joint primary attachment figure with the mother?
27%
According to Schaffer and Emmerson’s research, what % of children had formed an attachment with their father in 18 months, and how was this displayed?
75%
They protested when he walked away
When was the Grossmann et al study conducted and what happened in the study?
2002- longitudinal study where babies were studied into their teens
How does Grossmann et al’s research suggest that fathers do have an important role?
The quality of father’s play is related to the quality of adolescent attachment
This shows that fathers have a different, necessary role for play and stimulation
How does Grossmann et al’s research suggest that fathers do NOT have an important role?
The quality of the baby’s attachment to the mother (not the father) is related to adolescent attachment
What can happen when fathers are primary caregivers, and what is the evidence that backs this up?
They can adopt the motherly, emotional role
Field (1978)
Describe Field’s 1978 study with findings
He filmed 4 month old babies, and their interactions with primary mothers, primary fathers and secondary fathers
Primary fathers spent more time smiling, imitating and holding babies compared to secondary fathers
Reciprocity and interactional synchrony are processes of attachment
What is the strength of research into the ‘role of the father’?
Offers advice
- shows that fathers can be primary caregivers if that is what works out financially best for the family
Reduces influence from stereotypes and parental anxiety is reduced.
What are 3 weaknesses of research into the ‘role of the father’?
-Lack of clarity (some answer as PAF, some as SAF), so difficult to answer
-Preconceptions + stereotypes creates bias, unintentional observer bias as they ‘see’ what they expect, not reality so hard to reach conclusion
-Conflicting evidence (Grossmann yes they have a role) (McCallum & Golombok 2004 say single/lesbian parents have kids who don’t develop differently), question unanswered
When was Lorenz’s research completed?
1935
Describe the procedure for Lorenz’s research
He took a clutch of goose eggs and randomly divided them into 2 groups
One group stayed with their natural mother whilst the other group were in an incubator where the first moving object seen is Lorenz
What were the findings from Lorenz’s research?
The experimental group followed Lorenz but the control followed Mum, even when both groups mixed up
What is imprinting?
When bird species mobile from birth attach to first moving object they see
When must imprinting take place and why?
Within the critical period which is approximately 2 days
If attachment doesn’t occur here, then the infant won’t imprint so the effects are irreversible
What is sexual imprinting?
When imprinting affects later mate preference- effects are long lasting
What are 2 strengths of Lorenz’s research?
Support for imprinting
-Guilton 1966 leghorn chickens + yellow rubber glove
-Imprinted on glove
Predisposition to imprint, increases credibility
Can explain some human behaviour
-Seebach 2005 ‘baby duck syndrome’
-rejects other computer systems
Value in understanding human attachment
What are 2 weaknesses of Lorenz’s research?
Critical period questioned
-Guilton said preference, can learn to prefer chickens
-Maybe sensitive not critical
Lower validity
Can’t generalise to humans
-attachment too complex
-as it’s a 2 way process
Reduces explanatory power
When was Harlow’s research carried out?
1958
Describe the procedure of Harlow’s research
16 infant rhesus monkeys left alone with 2 ‘mothers’, one wire and one cloth
In one condition, the wire mother dispensed the milk, and in the other condition the cloh mother dispensed the milk
Measurements were taken of time spent with each mother, and the response when frightened, for example by a mechanical teddy bear
What were the findings from Harlow’s research?
All cuddled cloth and spent majority of time with it
Sought comfort from cloth when scared
What is the conclusion from Harlow’s research?
Comfort is more important in attachment than food
What was the critical period for monkeys in Harlow’s research and what does this mean?
Up to 90 days otherwise attachment is impossible and damage is irreversible
When Harlow studied the deprived monkeys into adulthood, what were 3 of the permanent effects?
Socially abnormal
Sexually abnormal
Neglected / attacked children, even killing in some cases
How were Harlow’s deprived monkeys socially abnormal?
Fled when approached by other monkeys
Aggressive
How were Harlow’s deprived monkeys sexually abnormal?
Unskilled in mating
What are 2 strengths of Harlow’s research?
Practical application
-social workers can understand neglect as risk factor in development- can intervene
-helps monkeys in zoos and wild breeding programmes
Not just theoretical
Cost-benefit analysis
-Valuable info on the importance of contact comfort in social development
-Positively affects child-rearing practices
Benefits outweigh costs
What are 2 weaknesses of Harlow’s research?
Hard to generalise from monkeys to human
-more complex, brain 3x bigger than chimp
-may not react same
Reduces explanatory power
Ethical issues
-long-term distress + deprivation
-can’t give consent
Not worth it
What does the learning theory of attachment suggest?
That behaviour is learnt from upbringing and environment
How is attachment formed according to classical conditioning?
Through association and repetition
What type of response is the pleasure that a baby feels from food?
A reflex response
According to classical conditioning, describe how attachment is formed
Food (UCS) –> Pleasure (UCR)
Caregiver (NS) –> No response
Food (UCS) + Caregiver (NS) –> Pleasure (UCR)
Caregiver (CS) –> Pleasure (CR)
How is attachment formed according to operant conditioning?
2 way process- learning from consequences
According to operant conditioning, describe how attachment is formed
Babies cry for comfort/food and gets response (feeding) which is positive reinforcement
When the adult comforts, the crying stops which is negative reinforcement for the adult
Explain how drive reduction works in the learning theory of attachment
Hunger is a primary drive which is innate and biological to reduce
The caregiver provides food so the hunger drive is generalised to the caregiver
Attachment is the secondary drive due to association to satisfaction
What is a slight strength in the learning theory of attachment?
Conditioning may be involved in some aspects of attachment
-food maybe not main reinforcer but the attention + responsiveness assists in forming attachment
Offers some explanation in the development of attachment
What are 3 weaknesses of the learning theory of attachment?
Lack of support from animal studies
-Lorenz geese attached to first moving object, not who had food
-Harlow all monkeys spent more time with cloth no matter who had food
Other factors (comfort) important in attachment
Lack of support from human studies
-Schaffer + Emmerson found that 39% developed primary attachment to non-feeder
Food isn’t main factor in human attachment: reciprocity + interactional synchrony more important
Reductionist theory
-many done on animals (rats)
-can’t generalise to complex attachment behaviour
-also doesn’t account for biology for survival (Bowlby)
Not a full account of behaviour so explanatory power is reduced
According to Bowlby, how is attachment viewed?
As crucial for survival and innately programmed. Attachment behaviour has evolved through natural selection.
What does Bowlby’s monotropic theory suggest?
One’s relationship with their primary attachment figure is more important and significant in their emotional development
Give 2 examples of social releasers
Big eyes, cooing
What are social releasers?
Innate ‘cute’ features babies are born with which activate the innate adult attachment system to provide attention and care
What did Bowlby’s monotropic theory propose as the sensitive period for attachment to occur?
6 months, but up to 2 years
What is the internal working model? (3 parts)
-mental representation of relationship with primary attachment figure
-acts as template for future relationships by generating expectations
-can affect parenting behaviour
What are 2 strengths of Bowlby’s monotropic theory?
Evidence for social releasers
-Brazelton asked mothers to ignore social releasers
-babies became distressed and some even motionless
Proves role of social releasers in attachment development
Evidence for internal working model
-Bailey assessed 99 teen mums with 1 year olds
-observation and interview with mother
-mum with insecure attachment to their own mother more likely to have insecure attachment with kid
Supports influence of their attachment on parenting
What are 2 weaknesses of Bowlby’s monotropic theory?
The term ‘monotropy’ lacks validity
-Schaffer and Emmerson found that a significant minority formed multiple attachments at the same time
-first may be stronger, but not different- have the same key qualities such as emotional support
Theory incorrect about having a unique quality attachment to PAF
Controversial ethical concerns regarding monotropy
-laws of continuity + accumulated separation suggest mothers shouldn’t return to work or it will negatively affect child’s emotional development
May burden and force lifestyle choice on mothers, reducing quality of life
Who conducted the original ‘strange situation’ procedure and in what year?
Ainsworth 1970
Where did the strange situation procedure take place?
In a lab room play area with toys
There was either a two-way mirror or cameras used for observation
What were the 5 behaviours tested for in the strange situation?
- Exploration + secure-base behaviour
- Proximity seeking
- Stranger anxiety
- Separation anxiety
- Reunion response
How many stages were there in the strange situation procedure, and how long approximately did each stage last?
7 stages, approx 3 minutes each
Name the 7 stages in the strange situation procedure
- Child enters room and is free to explore
- Stranger enters and interacts
- Caregiver leaves child with stranger
- Caregiver returns and stranger leaves
- Caregiver leaves child alone
- Stranger returns
- Caregiver returns, stranger leaves
Name the 3 types of attachments according to Ainsworth
Type A- insecure-avoidant attachment
Type B- secure attachment
Type C- insecure-resistant attachment
What % of British children are classified as having insecure-avoidant attachment?
Approximately 22%
Describe children classified as having insecure-avoidant attachment in 3 steps
-explores freely with no proximity/secure-base behaviour
-little-no stranger and separation anxiety
-little effort upon reunion, may even avoid
What % of British children are classified as having secure attachment?
Approximately 75%
Describe children classified as having secure attachment in 3 steps
-explores happily but displays proximity seeking + secure-base behaviour
-moderate stranger and separation anxiety
-requires and accepts comfort at reunion
What % of British children are classified as having insecure-resistant attachment?
3%
Describe children classified as having insecure-resistant attachment in 3 steps
-seeks greater proximity so explores less
-high levels of stranger + separation anxiety
-resists comfort on reunion
What are 2 strengths of the strange situation procedure?
Good inter-rater reliability
-Bick et al 2012 found 94% agreement on attachment type
Likely not subjective
Good predictive validity
-secure have better outcomes (eg: higher grades McCormick; better mental health Ward)
Procedure measures something real and meaningful in regards to development
What are 3 weaknesses of the strange situation procedure?
May be western culture-bound
-Takahashi 1986 found disproportionate insecure-resistant (and 90% stopped) sue to Japanese nature where mother and baby rarely separated
Lacks external (population) validity
Lacks ecological validity
-extraneous variables eradicated for control (eg: TV, other people)
-artificial and may result in different behaviours
Can’t be generalised to real life, reducing credibility
4th attachment type
-1986 found disorganised/Type D which is a mixture of avoidant and resistant behaviours
-Ainsworth didn’t predict overlap
Although rare, challenges 3 attachment type theory
Who studied cultural variations in attachment type and when?
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg 1988
What was Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research?
A meta-analysis using 32 attachment strange situations studied across 8 countries, totalling to 1990 children
What is a meta-analysis?
The results from each study are weighted for it’s sample size
What % of children were classed as insecure-avoidant attachment in Germany?
35%
What % of children were classed as insecure-avoidant attachment in Japan?
5%
What % of children were classed as insecure-avoidant attachment in Israel?
7%
What % of children were classed as insecure-resistant attachment in Japan?
27%
What % of children were classed as insecure-resistant attachment in Israel?
29%
What % of children were classed as secure attachment in China?
50%
How many times greater is intra-cultural variation compared to inter-cultural variation?
1.5x greater
What are sub-cultures and give 2 examples
Group within a culture which shares dominant characteristics, but has it’s own unique characteristics
Eg: Social class, urban/rural
What are the similarities between cultures according to van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg?
Secure attachment is the highest in all which feeds off of Bowlby’s idea that attachment is innate and universal
What are the differences between cultures according to van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg?
Insecure-avoidant is the next most common attachment type in individualistic cultures (eg: Germany)
However, insecure-resistant is the next most common attachment type in collectivist cultures (eg: Israeli kibbutzim)
What is a strength of van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research?
Most strange situations were conducted by indigenous psychologists
-eg Grossman in Germany and Takahashi in Japan
-this reduces communication issues or any negative sterotypes
Increases validity
What are 3 weaknesses of van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research?
Confounding variables have large impact
-eg: social class, age, size of room
Dissimilar studies may not tell anything about cross-cultural variations
Imposed etic
-in UK, lack of affection on reunion is insecure, but this is independence in Germany
Behaviours don’t always have same meaning, pointless to compare
Reductionist
-solely blames culture for attachment variation
-ignores individual differences eg: autism
Can’t establish causation that culture alone influences attachment, so low internal validity (not measuring what it set out to measure)
What does Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis suggest?
Continual care from a mother/mother-substitute is essential for normal psychological development
What is separation?
When child isn’t in presence of their primary attachment figure
What is maternal deprivation?
Emotional and intellectual consequences caused by lack of emotional care
What are the emotional consequences of maternal deprivation?
Affectionless psychopathy (shown in Bowlby’s 44 thieves study)
This links to criminality and delinquency
What is the intellectual consequence of maternal deprivation?
Delayed cognitive development characterised by an abnormally low IQ
When did Bolwby’s 44 thieves study take place, and what were the ages of the juveniles?
1944
5-17 years old
How was data collected in Bolwby’s 44 thieves study?
Interviews with thieves, and interviews with their parents
What were the findings from Bowlby’s 44 thieves study?
14 / 44 thieves were affectionless psychopaths, and 12 of those had prolonged separation in first 2 years
Only 5 / remaining 30 had prolonged seperation
In control group, only 2 / 44 had prolonged seperation
What was the conclusion from the 44 thieves study?
Deprivation causes affectionless psychopathy (which may lead to criminality)
In relation to the maternal deprivation hypothesis, what is the critical period for normal psychological development?
30 months but risk up to 5 years
What are 2 strengths of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation (other than the 44 thieves study)?
Research to support that deprivation has long-term effects
-Levy et al 2003 shows separating baby rat from mum had permanent effect on social development (although not other types)
Supports hypothesis
Real-world application in hospitals
-before children separated and visiting discouraged or forbidden
-now parents can stay over
External validity
What are 2 weaknesses of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?
Conflicting evidence
-Lewis 1954 on larger scale of 500
-found no association between early separation and later psychopathy
Can’t take Bowlby’s own research seriously
Critical period not always true
-Czech twins experienced severe physical + emotional abuse in the critical period
-later adopted and made full recovery
Permanent damage not inevitable, perhaps sensitive
What is institutionalisation?
The effects on children living in institutional setting for long, continuous periods of time with lack of emotional care
Who completed the study called looking at the effects of institutionalisation on Romanian orphans, and when?
Rutter et al 2011
Describe the procedure of Rutter et al Romanian orphan study
Longitudinal study (ages 4,6,11,15,22-25) following 165 Romanian orphans bad part of the English and Romanian Adoptee (ERA) study
Control group of 52 adopted not from institutions
Looking at extent to which good parenting can make up for poor early experiences.
Assessed physical, cognitive, and emotional development
What were the findings of the Rutter et al Romanian orphan study?
There were differential rates of recovery dependant on the age they were adopted.
Before 6 months, IQ at 120, but after 2 years IQ is 77.
If adopted after 6 months, disinhibited attachment is common (attention seeking and clingy)
What are 5 effects of institutionalisation?
- Disinhibited attachment (equally friendly to familiar and strangers as an adaptation to multiple caregivers)
- Intellectual under-functioning and low IQ
- Emotional development (affectionless psychopathy and tantrums)
- Lack of an internal working model
- Quasi-autism (obsessional rocking, difficulty with social constructs)
What are 2 strengths of Romanian orphan studies?
Lack of confounding variables
-orphan studies have varying degrees of trauma (neglect, abuse etc)
-here there aren’t multiple factors
Can observe effects of institutionalisation, high internal validity
Real-world application
-understand effects of institutionalisation to improve care
-key workers who play central role to avoid disinhibited attachment
High practical value and external validity
What are 2 weaknesses of Romanian orphan studies?
There may be a different confounding variable
-conditions so poor in terms of relationships and intellectual stimulation
-effects may represent poor institution, not good ones
Lacks external validity
Lacks data on adult development
-only looked at effects into 20s
-needs to look at lifetime of mental health and relationships
Due to nature of longitudinal study, it’s a while until the full long-term effects of institutionalisation are known
Give the flow chart of how early attachment affects later relationships
Primary attachment figure -> child’s internal working model
If secure, they seek and behave in functional relationships
If insecure, they are uninvolved/emotionally distant or controlling and argumentative
What are the 2 childhood relationships that early attachment type can influence, and what research supports this?
Friendships- Kerns
Bullying- Myron-Wilson and Smith
In Kerns’ 1994 research into childhood friendships, what did he find?
Early attachment type did influence friendships
Secure:
S- more social interaction
C- more confident in interactions
Q- best quality friendships
P- popular
E- shows empathy
Insecure:
D- difficulties
R- reliant on teachers for
I- interaction and
S- support
E- emotional
What did Myron-Wilson and Smith find about bullying in their 1988 longitudinal study?
Association between early attachment type and bullying
Secure- unlikely to be involved
Insecure avoidant- likely to be victims
Insecure resistant- likely to be bullies
What are the 3 adulthood relationships that early attachment type can influence, and what research supports this?
Friendship- McCarthy 1999
Romance- McCarthy 1999 and Hazan and Shaver 1987 ‘love quiz’
Parenting- Bailey et al 2007
Regarding McCarthy’s 1999 research into adulthood friendships and romance, briefly describe the study and the findings
40 women assessed for attachment type as babies and studied now- found association
Secure has best friendships and romantic relationships
Insecure avoidant struggled with intimacy
Insecure resistant struggled to maintain friendships
What were the 3 categories in Hazan and Shaver’s 1987 ‘love quiz’?
- Most important relationship
- General love experiences
- Attachment type
What % has each attachment type in Hazan and Shaver’s 1987 ‘love quiz’?
Secure- 56%
Insecure avoidant- 25%
Insecure resistant- 19%
What were the findings of romantic relationships in Hazan and Shaver’s 1987 ‘love quiz’?
Secure likely to have good, long-lasting relationships
Insecure avoidant likely to show jealousy and fear of intimacy
Insecure resistant likely to show obsession and emotional fluctuations
What is the strength of research into the influence of early attachment on later relationships?
Consistent supporting evidence
-eg from studies
-shows that early attachment can predict later attachment, emotional well-being and parenting
Shows advantages for secure and disadvantages for insecure
What are 3 weaknesses of research into the influence of early attachment on later relationships?
Evidence against the IWM affecting later relationships
-Zimmerman 2000 assessed early attachment type and adolescent attachment and found little relationship
Not as important, reduces explanatory power
Can’t establish cause and effect
-there may be a third temperament (nature) variable influencing both
-however unethical to manipulate
Reduces credibility of research
Research methodology lacks validity
-social desirability bias in questionnaires/interviews
-retrospective memory can be easily manipulated
Reduces internal validity + credibility
